9 - drug-related violence

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Goldstein’s (1985) tripartite framework

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theorised that drugs and violence are related in three ways/models:

psychopharmacological, economic compulsive, systemic

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Context of Goldstein’s framework

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Homicides in NY in the 1970s and 80s when there was a crack epidemic and high levels of violence

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44 Terms

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Goldstein’s (1985) tripartite framework

theorised that drugs and violence are related in three ways/models:

psychopharmacological, economic compulsive, systemic

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Context of Goldstein’s framework

Homicides in NY in the 1970s and 80s when there was a crack epidemic and high levels of violence

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Psychopharmacological

Violence may be due to someone being excitable, irrational, or irritable due to physical effects of being intoxicated or in withdrawal

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Substances involved with psychopharmacological

Alcohol, stimulants, barbiturates, and PCP

Opiates are unlikely to lead to violence but withdrawal may

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Effect of drugs on being a victim of violence

links to the notion of victim-precipitation - victim playing a part in their own victimisation

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Economic-compulsive

Drug users commit acquisitive crimes to gain money for drugs

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Violence and acquisitive crimes

Non-violent crimes include burglary, shoplifting, pickpocketing, prostitution

Violence is not intended but can be the result if the offender is challenged - a by-product

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Drugs associated with economic-compulsive

Heroin and cocaine - these are more expensive and associated with compulsive use according to Goldstein

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Victims of economic-compulsive crimes

Tend to be those living in the same neighbourhood and they are often involved in illegal activities also

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Systematic

Violence is intrinsic to involvement with illicit substances and drug distribution system

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Examples of systematic violence

Disputes over territory between rival drug dealers

Assaults/homicides to enforce normative codes within hierarchies

Retaliation

Punishment for selling fake drugs or not paying debts

Disputes over drugs or drug paraphernalia

Robbery related to the social economy of ‘copping’ areas

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Victims of systemic violence

Often contained to the drug system/environment - victim-offender overlap

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Critiques of Goldstein

Mostly based on ethnographic data and media reports

Quantitative data are unavailable

Framework is based on assumptions which are not testable

No rigorous discussion of how the models interact

Not reflective of young drug users who are not involved in higher level distribution

Framework is under-developed

Too much attention given to the systemic model without reason

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Bennett and Holloway (2009)

Wanted to test Goldstein’s theory by interviewing 41 prisoners in England on their use of drugs and committing crimes

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Main finding of Bennett and Holloway (2009)

Found that the drug-crime relationship goes both ways

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Brookman and Bennett (2018) - mephedrone

Reported just under half of survey respondents felt violent/acted violent after using

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Windle and Briggs (2015) qualitative study of ‘Red Gang’

Gang members were motivated by economic gain and self-interest

In a loose social network of friends/peers who ran drugs in various informal ways

Did not see themselves in a formal hierarchy

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Practitioners in Windle and Briggs (2015)

Did see a structure, hierarchy, and level of organisation in the gang - different perception to gang members

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Gangs and violence

Type, frequency, severity, motivations of violence tend to vary between gangs

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European gangs in over a dozen countries

Revealed a wide pattern of violent behaviour and levels of violence

Much greater than among non-gang youth but largely less serious than in the US

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Difference between US and European gangs - Klein et al. (2006)

Recentness of European gang development, lower level of firearm availability, lower level of gang territoriality in Europe

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Moeller and Hesse (2013) on Danish cannabis market (2004)

Found that police crackdown led to surge in homicides in following 5 years due to competition to become new distributors

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County lines

Saturation in urban market means dealers are expanding rurally

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Cuckooing in county lines

The dealer who has left the city needs somewhere to live in the rural location so sets up shop in someone else’s house - taking advantage of the vulnerable

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Spicer (2020) - county lines have been prone to scapegoating and moral panic

Gang talk

Middle-class cocaine users

Late stage prohibition

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Drugs in prison - two groups

Those who enter prisons already using drugs

Those who start drug use due to being in prison

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Public health practicioners and academic seen prison as opportune time to …

deliver drug treatment as it is a period of enforced abstinence, in theory

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Faze et al. (2006)

Disproportionate number of men and women entering prison have alcohol or drug dependencies compared to the general population

Women in prison are 2-4x more likely to be alcohol dependent and 12x more likely to be drug dependent

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Crewe (2005) on drugs in prison

Ethnographic study in English prison focusing on heroin use in prisoners

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Findings of Crewe (2005)

Many switched from cannabis to heroin as it was harder to detect

Dealers tend to not directly hold on to the drugs due to the risk

Heroin value is 3-4x higher in prison than on the streets

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Crewe (2005) supply routes

Staff (often bribed), friends/family on visits, thrown over a fence, court visits

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Crewe (2005) on violence

When drugs are plentiful, violence tends to erupt over competition between dealers

When drugs are scarce, violence tends to erupt over people being in debt, need to keep people in line, and retaliation

violence happens regardless of context

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Removal of drugs from prison - Watson (2016)

Focus on staff and how they removed/prevented drugs in prisons

Staff believed that unless demand disappears drug-free prisons will never be achievable

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Spice in prison

Unlike Crewe’s study this is now the most popular, changing the landcape

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Ralphs et al. (2017) on spice in prison

Main reason for spice being most popular is because it is not yet detectable in mandatory drug testing measures

Spice can cause hallucinations and can help pass time

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Grace et al. (2019) on spice

Many users of spice in prison stopped when released

Suggests spice is well-suited for prison life

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Baskin and Sommers (2016) - substance use and IPV

Interpersonal relationships can lead to the emergence, maintenance, and desistance of substance use

They can also act as protective factors

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Baskin and Sommers (2016) - four possible reasons for IPV

Psychopharmalogical

Economically motivated

Substance use exacerbates other problems, such as mental illness

Relationship is spurious or mediated by a third variable

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Choenni et al. (2017) systematic review

Looked at those with clinical diagnosis of alcohol dependent - at a greater risk of committing physical assault and psychological aggression

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Choenni et al. (2017) other variables playing a role

Gender, antisocial personality, PTSD, the relationship, unemployment, drug use, cultural/ethnic background

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Choenni et al. (2017) four hypotheses

Cognitive distortions

Deviance disavowal - alcohol used as excuse for violence

Pharmacological - disinhibition caused by alcohol

Biopsychosocial

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Biopsychosocial

combined influence of developmental, alcohol-related, individual and context factors

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Stitt and Auyero (2018)

Looked at systemic violence and how those involved in drug distribution were bringing violence into the home as a by-product

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Stitt and Auyero (2018) - three pathways of how drug market violence enters the home

Invasion

Protection

Pre-emption