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phylogenetics
study of evolutionary relationships between organisms
gradualism
time, change slowly
amniotes
vertebrates with fetal membrane (amnion)
taxonomy
the scientific discipline concerned with classifying and naming organisms
binomial
two-part scientific name of a species
first part of the scientific name of an organism
genus
second part of the scientific name of an organism
specific epithet
Carl Linnaeus
founder of taxonomy, introduced system for grouping species
groupings of species (from broad to narrow)
domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
taxon
taxonomic unit at any level of hierarchy
phylogeny
the evolutionary history of a species or group of related species
systematics
classifies organisms and determines their evolutionary relationships
what do phylogenetic trees represent?
a hypothesis about evolutionary history, relationships, and patterns of descent
branch point (in a phylogenetic tree)
represents a common ancestor of the descendant species diverging from that point
sister taxa
groyps that share an immediate common ancestor
rooted tree
includes a branch to represent the last common ancestor of all taxa in the tree
basal taxon
diverges early in the history of a group and originates near the common ancestor of the group
polytomy
branch from which more than two groups emerge
how do systematists infer phylogenies?
they gather information about morphologies, genes, and biochemistry of living organisms
homologies
phenotypic and genetic similarities due to shared ancestry
organisms with similar morphologies are likely to be _____ _____ _____ than organisms with different structures
more closely related
analogy
similarity due to convergent evolution
convergent evolution
similar environmental pressures and natural selection produce similar (analogous) adaptations in organisms from different evolutionary lineages
homoplasy (similar to analogy)
characters are similar, but not derived from a common ancestor
phylogenetic trees do not _____…
indicate when species evolved or how much change occurred in a lineage, no phenotypic similarity
______ _______ are used to construct phylogenetic trees
shared characters
_____ _____ can be used to infer phylogeny
homologous characters
cladistics
groups organisms by common descent
cladistics is the ____ ____ of phylogenetics
analytical/statistical part
clade
a group of species that includes an ancestral species and all its descendants
outgroup
species or group of species that is closely related to the ingroup, the various species being studied
the outgroup is group that has…
diverged before the ingroup
systematists
compare each ingroup species with the outgroup to differentiate between shared derived and shared ancestral characteristics
monophyletic (clade)
one group with one ancestor (one group)
paraphyletic
an ancestral species and some, not all, of the descendants (two distinct groups)
polyphyletic
distantly related species does not include most recent common ancestor
polyphyletic groups are different from paraphyletic groups by the fact that they …
don’t include the most recent common ancestor
shared ancestral character
character that originated in an ancestor of the taxon
shared derived character
evolutionary novelty unique to a particular clade
can a character can be both ancestral and derived?
yes
____ ____ ____ _____’s pink color comes from living prokaryotes
utah’s great salt lake
“bacteria run the world”
Edward O. Wilson
what are masters at adaptation?
prokaryotes
what can thrive almost everywhere?
prokaryotes
what are microscopic but large in numbers?
prokaryotes
prokaryotes are divided into two domains:
bacteria (monera) and achaea
likely Earth’s first organisms
prokaryotes
unicellular, some form colonies
prokaryotes
how big are prokaryotes?
0.5-5 micrometers/μm
three common shapes of prokaryotes
cocci (spheres), bacilli (rods), and spirals
important feature of nearly all prokaryotes cells?
cell wall
what does the cell wall in prokaryotic cells do
maintains cell shape, protects the cell, and prevents it from bursting in a hypotonic environment
what are cell walls made of?
peptidoglycan, network of sugar polymers cross-linked by polylpeptides (strong)
_____ lack peptidoglycan
archaea
what is the gram stain used for
to classify bacteria by cell wall composition
gram-positive
simpler walls with large amount of peptidoglycan
gram-negative
bacteria have less petidoglycan and an outer membrane that can be toxic
antibiotics can target …
peptidoglycan and damage bacterial cell walls
gram-negative bacteria are more likely to be….
antibiotic resistant
capsule
polysaccharide or protein layer that covers many prokaryotes
where is the bacterial capsule located
right outside the bacterial cell wallp
pro - (?) karyote - (?)
before the nut
endospores
metabolically inactive, remain viable in harsh conditions for centuries
fimbriae
allow prokaryotes to stick to their substrate or other individuals in a colony
pili (sex pili)
longer than frimbrae, allow prokaryotes to exchange DNA
taxis
ability to move toward or away from a stimulus
chemotaxis
movement toward or away a chemical stimulus
flagella
tough, used by bacteria to move (hook and motor structure)
prokaryotic genome has less ___ than the eukaryotic genome
DNA
most of prokaryotic genome consists of a _____ _____
circular chromosome
chromosome in prokaryotic cells is not surrounded by a membrane, it is located in the _____
nucleoid regionp
plasmids
smaller rings of DNA in some species of bacteria
what is the foundation of life on earth?
prokaryotes
eukaryotes (definition)
true to the nucleus
eukaryotes are ____-celled organisms
single
what are protists
eukaryotes
organisms in most eukaryotic lineages are ____
protists
protists are colonial. what does this mean?
they coalesce together with one functional purpose and work toward the same goal
protists is the informal name of the group of mostly ______ _______
unicellular eukaryotes
protists exhibit more what than any other group of eukaryotes?
structural and functional diversity
protists can reproduce how?
asexually and through meiosis and fertilization
more nutritionally diverse of all eukaryotes
protists
photoautotrophs
photosynthesize, have chloroplasts
heterotrophs
absorb or ingest large foo particles
mixotrophs
combine photosynthesis and heterotrophic nutrition
chemotrophs
chemical energy
______ _____ around the 1970s found bioluminescent animals and vertebrates… what did that discovery do?
Atlantic Rift, it rewrote the way we thought about energy acquisition
how did the vertebrates in the Atlantic Rift get their energy?
micronutrients, volcanic activity, temperature, chemical energy
supergroups of eukaryotes
excavata, SARA, archaeplastida, unikonta
there is considerable evidence that much protist diversity has origins in _______
endosymbiosis
endosymbiosis (a mutually beneficial process)
relationship bw two species where one organism lives inside the cell or cells of the other organism (the host)
Dr. Lynn Margulis
developed the Serial Endosymbiotic Theory (SET), The Origin of Eukaryotic Cells
Serial Endosymbiotic Theory (SET)
chloroplasts and mitochondria evolved from a symbiotic bacteria that lived inside of a larger prokaryote
Earth’s age
~4.5 to 7 billion years
cyanobacteria and protists likely exists on land by..
1.2 billion years ago
small plants, fungi, and animals emerged on land only within the
last 500 million years
plants have diversified into more than
290,000 living species
plants don’t only provide energy, but…
diversity of habitat and places to reproduce
the root of our ancestry evolutionary is
aquatic
algae
photosynthetic protists, eukaryotic, not in plant kingdom
