PSY200 Final Exam Cheat Sheet

psychology

scientific study of mind and behavior

clinical psychology

largest subspecialty; diagnoses and treats mental disorders/emotional issues

cognitive psychology

focuses on mental processes (thoughts, memory, perception, and problem-solving)

developmental psychology

studies physical, cognitive, and social changes across the lifespan (Piaget)

social psychology

studies prejudice, attraction, conflict resolution, and self vs. other explanations

forensic psychology

applied to legal contexts (jury selection, witness prep)

behaviorism

focuses strictly on observable behavior learned through external reinforcement/punishment (ignores inner thoughts)

humanism

emphasizes innate human potential for good, free will, and self-actualization (Maslow)

psychodynamic (Freud)

emphasizes unconscious drives, early childhood experiences, and defense mechanisms

biological

explains behavior via genetics, neurotransmitters, brain structures, and physiological processes

diathesis-stress model

suggests disorders stem from a biological predisposition (diathesis) triggered by environmental factors (stress)

causation vs correlation

only experimental research can establish cause-and-effect relationships; correlational studies only show relationships

case study

in-depth focus on a single individual (ex: studying a rare brain injury); offers rich detail but cannot be generalized

institutional review board (IRB)

committee that reviews research proposals to ensure participant safety and ethical standards (ex: informed consent)

neuron anatomy

signal travels from the dendrites to cell body (soma) to axon to terminal buttons

synapse

the microscopic space between two neurons; neurotransmitters must carry the electrical impulse across the synaptic gap to excite or inhibit the neighboring neuron

nervous system

divided into central (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral

fight or flight (sympathetic)

heart rate/bp rises, pupils dilate, adrenaline surges, digestion slows

frontal lobe

executive functions, impulse control, emotion regulation (underdeveloped in adolescents, leading to risk taking)

amygdala

processes emotions, particularly fear

melatonin

released by pineal gland; stimulated by darkness, inhibited by light

REM sleep

characterized by rapid eye movements under closed lids and dreaming

stimulants

speed up CNS activity

depressants

slow down/depress CNS activity (ex: anti-anxiety medication)

sensation vs perception

sensation is sensory receptor detection; perception is how the brain interprets that data

associative learning

linking two events that occur together

classical conditioning

learning by associating stimuli (CS paired with UCS)

operant conditioning

behavior modified by consequences (reinforcements/punishments)

social learning theory

learning by observing and modeling others

encoding

processing information into memory

storage

creation of a permanent record of information

retrieval

getting stored information back into conscious awareness

rehearsal

repeating information to maintain it

elaborative rehearsal

links new information to existing knowledge for deeper processing and building meaning

distributed practice

spacing study sessions over time (prevents cramming/transience)

sleep and memory

critical for long-term memory consolidation

memory capacity

fully developed working memory holds 7+/- 2 items

types of memory

explicit: conscious recall, implicit: unconscious/procedural

recognition vs recall

multiple choice tests use recognition; fill in the blank uses recall

IQ tests

the average score is 100; a score below 70 indicated an intellectual disability; a score at 130 or higher indicates superior intelligence

relearning

learning information that you previously learned

learning disability vs intellectual disability

learning disabilities affect specific skills (reading/math); intellectual disabilities involve global cognitive/adaptive limits

fluid intelligence

solving novel problems and creative reasoning

crystallized intelligence

accumulated knowledge and facts retrieved from memory

nature vs nurture

nature: genes/biology; nurture: environment/culture

developmental domains

• Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages: 8 lifetime stages; Infancy is about Trust vs. Mistrust; Adolescence (onset of puberty) is focused on Identity vs. Role Confusion; Early Adulthood is a struggle between Intimacy vs. Isolation.

• Parenting Styles: Styles are a combination of warmth/responsiveness of parents and expectations. Authoritative is considered the most effective style in modern Western culture with high warmth and high expectations. Authoritarian is considered more harsh with high expectations but low warmth. Permissive is considered too relaxed with high warmth but low expectations. 

physical (body/brain), cognitive (learning/thinking), psychosocial (emotions/relationships)

motor skills

fine: small muscles (writing, using utensils, grasping), gross: large muscles (running, jumping, balancing)

Erikson’s psychosocial stages

8 Lifetime Stages: infancy: trust vs. mistrust, adolescence: identity vs. role confusion, early adulthood: intimacy vs. isolation

parenting styles

Combination of warmth/responsiveness of parents and expectations. Authoritative: most effective style in modern Western culture with high warmth and high expectations. Authoritarian: more harsh with high expectations but low warmth. Permissive: too relaxed with high warmth but low expectations

drive theory

deviations from homeostasis create physiological needs that push behavior

arousal theory

we seek excitement when bored and peace when overstimulated

intrinsic vs extrinsic

intrinsic: internal satisfaction, extrinsic: external rewards/money

self-efficacy

belief in one’s own capability to complete a task; believing success will occur motivates a person to take action

maslow’s hierarchy

lower-level physical/safety needs must be met before striving for self-actualization

roger’s congruence

alignment between one’s real-self and ideal-self form our self-concept; high congruence leads to a greater sense of self-worth and a healthy, productive life

emotion

main components are physiological response, cognitive appraisal, and subjective experience (objective measurements are not a component)

facial feedback hypothesis

facial expressions can directly influence/guide emotional experiences (Ekman)

personality traits

long-term, stable, and not easily changed

trait theory

a composition of stable characteristics that influence an individual’s behavior across various situations

approaches

explain personality development as they would other behavior (psychodynamic looks to unconscious experiences; behaviorism connects it to learn responses; biological emphasizes inherited traits)