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Maltose
Glucose + Glucose
Sucrose
Glucose + Fructose
Lactose
Glucose + Galactose
Glycogen
Animal glucose storage
Starch
Plant glucose storage
Cellulose
Plant structure
Saturated Fatty Acids
-Single bonds
-Solid at room temp.
Unsaturated Fatty Acids
-Double bonds
-Liquid at room temp.
Terepenes
Built from multiple isoprene units
Cholesterol
-In cell membrane
-Steroid precursor
-Bile salts
Catalysts
-Stabilize the transition states
-Reduce the activation energy
Competitive Inhibition
-Binds at active site
-No change in Vmax
-Increases Km
Non-Competitive Inhibition
-Binds at allosteric site
-Decreases Vmax
-No change in Km
Uncompetitive Inhibition
-Binds at allosteric site of ES complex
-Decreases Vmax
-Decreases Km
Mixed Inhibition
-Binds at allosteric site of E along or ES complex
-Decreases Vmax
-Varied effects on Km
Glycolysis
-Occurs in the cytosol
-O2 in not needed
PCD/Krebs Cycle
-Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix
-O2 is indirectly needed
Electron Transport Chain/Oxidative Phosphorylation
-Occurs in the mitochondrial inner membrane
-O2 is directly needed
Fermentation
Pyruvate --> Ethanol (yeast) or Lactic Acid (muscle)
Glycogenesis
-High blood glucose
-Insulin produced
-Glucose converted to glycogen
-Stored in liver and lesser extent in muscle
Glycogenolysis
-Low blood glucose
-Glucagon produced
-Glycogen converted to glucose in the liver
Pentose Phosphate Pathway
-Produces NADPH
-Reducing power
-Fatty acid synthesis
-Eliminate reactive oxygen species
-Ribose-5 phosphate --> nucleotide synthesis
Fatty Acid Oxidation
-Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix
-Linked to acetyl-CoA
-Conezymes used are FAD and NAD+
-2 ATP input makes lots of energy
Fatty Acid Synthesis
-Occurs in the cytosol
-Starting Materials: acetyl-coA and malonyl-CoA
-Coenzyme used is NADPH
-Requires a lot of energy
Ketogenesis
-During long term starvation
-Blood glucose is low
-Fatty acids oxidized increase levels of acetyl CoA
-Acetyl CoAs react together to form ketone bodies
-Ketone bodies enter the brain and are reconverted to acetyl-CoA (primary source of energy for the brain during starvation)
Pyrimidines
-Cystosine
-Thymine
-Uracil
Pyramids are sharp so they "CUT" you
Purines
-Adenine
-Guanine
AG (silver) is "pure"
A-T Base Pairing
2 hydrogen bonds
G-C Base Pairing
3 hydrogen bonds
DNA Gyrase
Helps prevent supercoiling in prokaryotes
Heterochromatin
Inactive, tightly bound
Euchromatin
Active, loosely bound
Centromere
-Region on chromosome (in the middle)
-Mitotic spindle attaches here
-Holds replicated DNA together during mitosis
Central Dogma
DNA replication --> Transcription into RNA --> Translation into proteins
Start Codon
-AUG = Methionine
Stop Codons
-UAA (you are annoying)
-UGA (you go away)
-UAG (you are gross)
Human Genome
-46 chromosomes
-23 chromosome pairs from each parent
Polymerase Errors
1.) Point mutations
2.) Small repeats
3.) Insertions/deletions (small, frameshift)
Endogenous Damage (Reactive Oxygen Species or Physical Damage)
1.) Oxidized DNA
2.) Crosslinked bases
3.) Physical damage
4.) These can lead to polymerase errors
Exogenous Damage (Radiation or Chemicals)
1.) UV radiation = pyrimidine dimers
2.) X-rays = double-stranded breaks and translocation
3.) Chemicals = can lead to physical damage or to intercalation and those polymerase errors
Transposons
1.) Insertions/deletions (large)
2.) Inversions
3.) Duplications
Point Mutations
-Single base pair change
1.) Missense
2.) Nonsense
3.) Silent
Missense Mutation
-Codon for amino acid becomes new codon for new amino acid
-Change in the amino acid results
Nonsense Mutation
-Codon for amino acid becomes STOP codon
-Shortened protein results
Silent Mutation
-Codon for amino acid becomes new codon for same amino acid
-No effect
Frameshift Mutations
-Insertions/deletions
-Changes the reading frame
X-Rays
Cause double strand breaks
UV Radiation
-Causes pyrimidine dimers
-Repaired by white light
DNA Replication
1.) Semiconservative
2.) 5' to 3'
3.) Requires a primer
4.) Requires a template
Helicase
Unwinds DNA
Primase
Puts down the RNA primer
Topoisomerase
-Cuts DNA
-Relaxes supercoiling
DNA Polymerase
-Replicates DNA
-Proofreads
-Removes primer
Ligase
Links Okazaki fragments
DNA Polymerase III
-High processivity
-Fast 5' to3' polymerase and 3' to 5' exonuclease
-Adds nucleotides at ~400bp downstream of ORI
-This is the main replicating enzyme
-No known function in DNA repair
DNA Polymerase I
-Low processivity
-Adds nucleotides at RNA primer
-Slow 5' to 3' polymerase and 3' to 5' exonuclease
-Also a 5' to 4' exonuclease to remove primer
-DNA excision repair
DNA Polymerase II
-5' to 3' polymerase and 3' to 5' exonuclease
-Back up for DNA Pol III
-DNA repair
DNA Polymerase IV and V
-Error prone 5' to 3' polymerase activity
-DNA repair
Telomerase
-Lengthen telomeres
-Carries it's own RNA template
-Reverse transcriptase activity
DNA
-Double stranded
-Thymine
-Deoxyribose
-Double helix
-One type
RNA
-Single stranded
-Uracil
-Ribose
-Lots of different shapes
-Many different types
rRNA
Ribosomal RNA
mRNA
Messanger RNA
tRNA
Transfer RNA
hnRNA
Heterogenous nuclear RNA
miRNA and siRNA
Micro RNA
Transcription
-Is the primary point of regulation for translation
-Promoter: strong = affinity for RNA pol get a lot of RNA, weak lower affinity for RNA pol get less RNA
-DNA Binding Proteins: repressors and enhancers
Transcription (Prokaryotes)
-Transcription and translation happen at the same time
-No mRNA processing
-Polycistronic
-1 RNA polymerase
Transcription (Eukaryotes)
-Transcription and translation happen in different places
-mRNA processing (5' G-cap, 3' poly-A tail, splicing)
-Monoscistronic = "one mRNA, one protein"
-3 RNA polymerases (RNA Pol 1 = rRNA, RNA Pol II = mRNA, RNA Pol III = tRNA)
Wobble Base Pairs
G,U, I at the 5' end of anticodon
Subunits of Ribosome (Prokaryotes)
-Large: 50S
-Small: 30S
-Total: 70S
Subunits of Ribosome (Eukaryotes)
-Large: 60S
-Small: 40S
-Total: 80S
A Site
New amino acid is added to this site
P Site
Growing site of the protein
Post-Translational Modification: Protein Folding
-Some inherent (polar-polar, non-polar to non-polar)
-Some helped by chaperone proteins
Post-Translational Modification: Covalent Modification
-Phosphorylation
-Glycosylation
-Disulfide Bridges
Post-Translational Modification: Processing
Removing a portion of protein to activate it
Virus
-Obilgate intracellular parasite
-Protein + nucleic acid
-Capsid protein
-Can't be both RNA and DNA
Viral Life Cycle
1.) Attachement (Adsorption) - specific, not yet infected
-Injection (Penetration) - infected
Lytic Cycle
-Transcribe and translate the viral genome
-Replicate viral genome
-Lysis of host and release of new viral particles - put holes in bacterial cell wall
Lysogenic Cycle
-Integrate viral genome with host genome
-Normal host activity, including reproduction
-Excision and lytic cycle
Productive Cycle
-Like lytic cycle but no lysis
-Budding
-Animal viruses ONLY
-Get coated in lipid bilayer envelope
RNA Dependent RNA Polymerase
-Reads RNA (RNA Dependent)
-Makes RNA (RNA Polymerase)
RNA Dependent DNA Polymerase
-Reads RNA
-Makes DNA
-Reverse transcriptase
Prions
-No DNA/RNA
-No cell membrane
-No organelles
-Very small
-Extremely stable (heat resistant, acid resistant, detergent resistant)
Mutant Prions
-Arise by mutation
-Be inherited
-Be ingested
Viroids
-Circular RNA
-No capsid
-Don't code for proteins
-Base pair with existing RNA
Bacillus Bacteria
Rod shaped
Coccus Bacteria
Sphere shaped
Spirella Bacteria
Spiral shaped
Gram Positive Bacteria
-Thick peptidoglycan cell wall
-Purple stain
Gram Negative Bacteria
-Thin peptidoglycan cell wall
-Pink stain
Mesophile
Medium temperature living condition
Thermophiles
Hot temperature living condition
Psychrophile
Cold temperature living condition
Obligate Aerobe
Need oxygen to survive
Facultative Anaerobe
-Use oxygen to survive
-Without oxygen survive through fermentation
Tolerant Anaerobe
-Does not prefer oxygen but will not die
-Prefers no oxygen to live on fermentation
Obligate Anaerobes
-Will die in the presence of oxygen
-Survive without oxygen through fermentation
Phototroph
Converts sunlight to ATP
