Historical Timeline of Climate Change and Water Cycle Dynamics

Who was one of the first to address the limits of the Earth and dangers of population growth?

Thomas Malthus in 1798.

What significant contribution did Eunice Foote make in 1856?

She suggested that changing the proportion of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere would change its temperature.

What did Svante Arrhenius calculate in 1896 regarding CO2 levels?

He calculated that reducing CO2 by half could produce an ice age and that doubling atmospheric CO2 would increase global temperatures by 5-6°C.

What is the Keeling Curve and who established it?

The Keeling Curve is a graph that shows the increase of CO2 in the atmosphere, established by Charles Keeling at the Mauna Loa Observatory.

What was the main finding of the First World Climate Conference in 1979?

John Sawyer stated that a 25% increase in CO2 expected by the end of the century would correspond to a 0.6°C increase in world temperature.

What was James Hansen's contribution to climate change awareness in the 1980s?

He raised the alarm about climate change and established a cause and effect relationship with the greenhouse effect.

What is the purpose of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) established in 1988?

To prepare a comprehensive review and recommendations regarding climate change science and its social and economic impacts.

What was the aim of the Kyoto Protocol established in 1997?

To control emissions of main anthropogenic greenhouse gases and require nations to reduce their GHG emissions to 1990 levels.

What was the focus of the documentary 'An Inconvenient Truth' released in 2006?

To alert the public about the planetary emergency due to global warming and raise awareness of climate issues.

What is the goal of the Paris Agreement established in 2016?

To keep the increase in global average temperature below 2°C, aiming for a limit of 1.5°C.

What significant change occurred in urban structures during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2021?

Many cities, including Paris, saw a dramatic decline in emissions and increased use of bikes over cars due to new cycle lanes.

What is the hydrologic cycle classified as and why?

It is a closed system because there is a finite amount of water on Earth, though energy can change its state.

What percentage of evaporation and precipitation occurs over oceans?

86% of evaporation and 78% of precipitation occurs over ocean surfaces.

What is advection in the context of the hydrologic cycle?

Advection is the horizontal movement of water vapor in the atmosphere.

What is unique about water at normal temperature and atmospheric pressure?

Water exists as a 'triple point', allowing it to exist in solid, liquid, and gas forms simultaneously.

What did Newman's book 'The End of Automobile Dependence' suggest about urban design?

It suggested that designing cities to facilitate different choices is more effective than forcing people out of their cars.

What was New Zealand's pledge regarding greenhouse gas emissions as part of the Paris Agreement?

To reduce emissions by 50% below 2005 levels by 2030.

What was the outcome of New Zealand's declaration of a climate emergency in 2021?

It coincided with a global decline in emissions and urban structural changes.

What was the significance of the CO2 reading of 429.17ppm recorded in the 1960s?

It marked one of the first significant measurements of atmospheric CO2 levels.

What did the 1972 statement by John Sawyer predict about CO2 levels?

He predicted that a 25% increase in CO2 would lead to a temperature increase of 0.6°C.

What was a major frustration for James Hansen while working at NASA?

He was often asked to change or keep quiet about his published reports on climate change.

How many parties are currently involved in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)?

There are currently 197 Parties.

What did the Kyoto Protocol require from nations that joined?

Nations had to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions to the levels they were at in the 1990s.

What is a triple point in relation to water?

It is the condition where water can exist in all three phases (solid, liquid, gas) at the same time, which is very rare.

What is latent heat?

Heat released or absorbed during phase changes of a molecule.

How does water behave during freezing and condensation?

Water releases latent heat when it freezes and when it condenses onto a surface.

What must happen for water to evaporate?

Heat must be applied to make water evaporate.

What does 'Waiora' refer to in Māori?

The purest form of water, used to purify and heal.

What is 'Waimāori'?

Water that is running freely and healthy, considered clean everyday water.

What does 'Waikino' signify?

Polluted, spoilt, or dangerous water, such as in rapids or gorges.

What is meant by 'Waimate'?

Dead or damaged water, where the life force has been lost, also applied to stagnant backwaters.

Define 'Waipuna'.

Freshwater springs.

What does 'Waitai' refer to?

The sea or surf, which is part of natural rejuvenation.

What are the steps involved in precipitation processes?

Condensation, cloud formation, and precipitation.

How is climate change affecting the water cycle?

It intensifies the water cycle, leading to more intense rainfall and flooding, as well as more intense droughts.

What is relative humidity?

The ratio of water vapor in a parcel of air compared to what it could hold.

Define specific humidity.

The actual amount of water vapor in an air mass, measured in grams of water.

What is saturation vapor pressure?

The pressure exerted by vapor in equilibrium with its liquid or solid phase at a given temperature.

How does humidity change with pressure and temperature?

Humidity can change with variations in both pressure and temperature.

What is the adiabatic lapse rate?

It describes how the temperature of an air parcel changes as it rises or descends in the atmosphere due to expansion or compression, without exchanging heat.

What is the dry adiabatic lapse rate?

The rate at which dry air cools or warms.

What occurs at the wet adiabatic lapse rate?

It occurs when water is condensed out of the air.

What causes an air parcel to lift?

Lifting of a parcel of air, usually due to temperature differences.

What are condensation nuclei?

Particles that require an increase in size of water or ice particles for condensation to occur.

What are the two processes involved in precipitation?

Collision-coalescence processes in warm clouds and Bergeron-Findeisen processes in cold clouds.

What are subtropical highs?

Areas associated with dry conditions where air parcels descend, typically around 30° North and South latitude.

What is the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)?

A region of rising air and low pressure near the equator, associated with cloudy conditions, thunderstorms, and high annual rainfall.

How do Hadley cells affect global climate?

They create areas of low atmospheric pressure where air descends, influencing wind and pressure systems around the world.

What direction do Trade Winds blow?

East-to-west.

How does the Coriolis effect influence wind direction in the Northern Hemisphere?

It diverges wind to the right.

How does the Coriolis effect influence wind direction in the Southern Hemisphere?

It diverges wind to the left.

What percentage of glacier ice has melted since the end of the century according to a new study?

20-50%.

What was notable about the last summer in New Zealand?

It was the second driest summer in the last hundred years.

What impact do changing rainfall patterns have on storm events?

They lead to more extreme storm events.

How do changing snow cover regimes affect communities in mountainous Europe?

They will suffer from less snow melt, impacting agriculture and hydropower.

What ecological change occurs due to warming of glacial rivers?

Life cycle changes in macroinvertebrates, affecting the ecosystem.

What is the effect of lower dissolved oxygen on insects in American rivers?

Insects are less likely to survive.

What environmental changes are linked to sea level rise in Camargue?

Increased salt concentration in soil and decreasing flows of the Rhône River.

What is a significant aspect of regenerative farming mentioned in Waitaki Valley?

There is more livestock underground being farmed.

What is the main impactful action to combat climate change?

Consume less.

What percentage of GHG emissions is produced by the richest 10%?

50%.

What will happen to climate change effects even if emissions stop today?

We will still experience climate change for decades.

What is the global coverage of glacierized large-scale drainage basins?

They cover 26% of the global land surface outside Greenland and Antarctica.

What happens to glacier runoff volume as glaciers recede?

It typically increases until 'peak water' is reached, after which it decreases.

What is 'peak water'?

The maximum annual glacier runoff volume before it decreases due to reduced glacier area.

Which regions are projected to have the largest relative reductions in basin runoff due to glacier runoff change?

Central Asian basins and South America.

What is the majority composition of global freshwater?

70% is in ice.

What is the residence time of water in ice sheets?

20,000 years.

How long is the residence time for glaciers?

40-400 years.

What technology was used to measure water at the global scale from 2002-2017?

Gravity Recovery And Climate Experiment (GRACE).

How do the satellites in the GRACE experiment measure changes in the gravitational field?

By measuring the distance between two satellites in tandem as it alters due to minute changes in gravitational pull.

What does GRACE measure?

GRACE measures variations in the total water stored on and in the land by detecting spatial and temporal changes in gravity.

What are the effects of trade winds in the ENSO phenomenon?

Trade winds move warm surface water west across the Pacific, creating convection and low pressure near Australia, while high pressure forms near South America.

What happens during El Niño and La Niña in terms of weather patterns?

During El Niño, Australia experiences droughts while western South America has floods; during La Niña, the opposite occurs.

How much of the total water supplied to land is usable?

Of the 106,000 km³/year supplied to land, only 14,000 km³/year is usable due to temporal variability in supply.

What was the per capita water availability in Afghanistan in 2019?

1.2 m³ per capita.

What was the per capita water availability in India in 2014?

1.1 m³ per capita.

How much water does the USA use per person per day?

540 liters.

What is the estimated total water use by humanity?

Approximately 5000 km³.

What percentage of the world's reliable runoff is currently used by humanity?

34%, which could reach 70% by 2025.

What is the Cryosphere?

The Cryosphere includes all the different forms of frozen water on Earth and in the ocean.

What are Milankovitch cycles?

Milankovitch cycles are changes in Earth's orbit that impact climate variability.

What is an example of a volcanic eruption that cooled the climate?

The Pinatubo eruption.

What are absolute and relative methods of reading past temperatures?

Absolute methods provide actual temperatures, while relative methods indicate whether the climate was cooler or warmer without specific dates.

What is one absolute method for dating past temperatures?

Dating of cosmic rays in rocks and tree rings.

What do trimlines in glaciers indicate?

Trimlines indicate where glaciers have advanced and retreated.

What happens to ocean water isotopes during glacial periods?

During glacial periods, oceans become enriched with 'heavy' water isotopes, while land ice/snow becomes enriched with 'lighter' isotopes.

What is the potential sea level rise if all ice in Antarctica melts?

Sea level would rise by 60 meters.

How does the volume of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet compare to the West Antarctic Ice Sheet?

The East Antarctic Ice Sheet has nine times the volume of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet.

What is the thickness of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet?

Over 4 kilometers thick.

What is the difference between an ice sheet and an ice shelf?

Ice sheets are predominantly on land, while ice shelves are floating extensions of ice sheets that are connected to land.

What has sediment records indicated about the stability of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet?

The East Antarctic Ice Sheet has stayed relatively stable, while the West Antarctic Ice Sheet has completely collapsed and re-formed in the past.

What impact does increasing population have on water use?

The increasing population has tripled in the last century, leading to increased water use per capita, which has quadrupled over the same period.

What is the current trend in per capita water use due to improved efficiency and technology?

Improved efficiency and technology are helping to reduce per capita water use.

What is the grounding zone in relation to ice sheets?

The grounding zone is the point where the ice sheet transitions to a floating ice shelf, specifically where the ice begins to float and detach from the bedrock.

What is the largest ice sheet in the Arctic?

Greenland.

How much sea level equivalent does Greenland represent?

7 meters.

What is the maximum elevation of Greenland's ice sheet?

3200 meters.

What is the thickness of the ice in the interior of Greenland?

3000 meters.

What is the rate of ice loss in Greenland since 2002?

273 billion tonnes per year.