Copy of Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology by John E. Hall

Golgi apparatus

Organelle composed of stacked layers of thin, flat vesicles located near the nucleus that processes, packages, and secretes cellular products.

Primary function of lysosomes

Intracellular digestive system containing hydrolytic enzymes (hydrolases) that break down proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and carbohydrates.

Peroxisomes

Membrane-bound organelles containing oxidases that combine oxygen with hydrogen ions to form hydrogen peroxide ($H_2O_2$), used alongside catalase to detoxify harmful substances.

Mitochondria cristae

Infoldings of the inner mitochondrial membrane that provide a large surface area for chemical reactions involved in oxidative phosphorylation.

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) structure

Nucleotide consisting of adenine, ribose, and three phosphate radicals connected by high-energy bonds containing approximately $12\,kcal/mol$ of free energy per bond.

Pinocytosis

Active endocytic process involving the ingestion of minute particles and extracellular fluid droplets via vesicles formed by clathrin-coated pits ($100\,nm$ to $200\,nm$ in diameter).

Phagocytosis

Ingestion of large particles such as bacteria, whole cells, or cellular debris by specialized cells involving pseudopodia.

Lysosomal autolysis

Process where severely damaged cells or tissues are completely digested by the release of hydrolytic enzymes from their own internal organelles.

Autophagy

Process by which obsolete or damaged organelles and large protein aggregates are enclosed in autophagosomes and degraded by lysosomes.

Anaerobic glycolysis location and net energy yield

Occurs in the cytoplasm, converting glucose to pyruvic acid with a net yield of $2\,ATP$ per glucose molecule.

Citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) location

Mitochondrial matrix, where acetyl-CoA is broken down into $CO_2$ and hydrogen ions for energy production.

Chemiosmotic mechanism

Process in mitochondria where the electron transport chain pumps protons ($H^+$) into the intermembrane space, creating a gradient that drives ATP synthesis via ATP synthase.

Ameboid movement

Cellular locomotion achieved by continuous formation of pseudopodia at one end and contraction at the other end, mediated by actin and myosin filaments.

Chemotaxis

Directional movement of cells toward high concentrations of a chemical substance (positive) or away from a substance (negative).

Ciliary movement pattern

Whiplike movement featuring a rapid forward stroke followed by a slow recovery stroke, requiring ATP and dependent on a $9+2$ array of microtubules.

Nucleolus

Dense structure within the nucleus without a membrane, responsible for synthesizing ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and assembling ribosome subunits.