Harder flashcards to remember

Who established the first lab in motor learning and sport psychology?

Coleman Griffith in 1925

When and where was the first Sport Psychology conference held?

In 1956 in the USSR

What year was the International Society of Sport Psychology established?

1965

When was the British Psychological Society (BPS) established?

1984

When was the Chartered Association of Sport and Exercise Science (CASES) established?

Established in 1901

What does the TARGET framework stand for in achievement structures? (Epstein, 1989)

Tasks, Authority, Recognition, Grouping, Evaluation, Time

What does Achievement Goal Theory focus on? (Nicholls, 1989)

• Understanding the role of competence or ability

• A theory of motivation that focuses on differences in how individuals evaluate competence and define success and failure.

→ involves task-mastery orientation and ego-orientation

What does the bounded rationality perspective suggest about motivation?

Money will not always motivate people to perform their best; humans don't always act rationally.

What are the three basic psychological needs in SDT?

Autonomy, competence, and relatedness

What is task-mastery orientation?

Taking pride in progressive improvement of knowledge and ability relative to past performances.

• Self-referenced

• Focus on improving ability rather than current ability

• Process orientation (one step at a time)

• Conductive maintaining high perceptions competence/ability

What characterises ego orientation?

Intent on demonstrating superiority over others, motivated by social comparison.

• Other referenced perceptions of competence

• Current ability is important

• Superior to others

• Equal with less effort

• Outcome orientation

• Not conductive maintaining perceptions high competence/ability

• When losing, they tend to remove all effort

What are the two types of motivational climates identified by Ames (1992)?

Mastery (task-involving) climate and performance (ego-involving) climate

Outline what is meant by SE expectancy, outcome expectancy, and outcome value according to the self-efficacy theory?

Se expectancy = the expectations about one’s skills and capabilities to engage successfully in the specific target behaviour in particular situations

•  e.g., adhering to an 8 week exercise programme, walking 5 times a week for 30 minutes

Outcome expectancy = expectations about outcomes

•  i.e., believing that adherence to such a programme with result in the desired outcomes

Outcome value = the value placed on those outcomes

Define self-confidence

'A belief about our ability to be successful.'

What did SPEX researchers assert about physical activity (PA) and self-esteem? (Fox, 2000)

Physical activity should have a greater impact on physical self domains compared to other domains.

What did the meta-analysis by Spence et al. (2005) conclude about exercise?

• 113 research studies examining effects of exercise

• Conclusion – exercise results in small but significant improvements in global self esteem

• Also suggests that increases in physical fitness are required to produce this improvement

What does the Multidimensional Anxiety Theory predict?

• Cognitive anxiety = negative linear relationship

• Somatic anxiety = inverted-U theory

What is hysteresis (Hardy et al, 1994) in the context of the catastrophe theory?

After a sudden decline in performance caused by high arousal and anxiety, performance does not immediately recover when arousal decreases. Instead, arousal must be reduced substantially before performance returns to its previous level.

→ only happens under conditions of high cognitive anxiety

Outline the stress process

Every Individual Should Breathe

1. Environmental demand

2. Individual’s perception of the environmental demand

3. Stress response

4. Behavioural consequences

What is pendular group development? List the stages involved

Only Dogs Run Together

Orientation

Differentiation and conflict

Resolution and cohesion

Termination

Outline Ringelmann’s (1913) task

• ask involved groups of 2, 3 and 8 people pulling a rope

• Performance off each individual progressively declined as the number of people in the group increased

• Ringelmann effect: tendency for individual members of a group to become increasingly less productive as the size of the group increases

• Individual abilities do not neatly sum up to group or team performance

• 1 person = 100%, 2 pps = 93%, 3pps = 85%, 8pps = 49% effort

What does cyclical group development entail?

Formation, performance and dissolution

→ psychological preparation before dissolution occurs

→ good for fixed/short-term groups

Outline Carron’s (1982) conceptual model of cohesion

4 main antecedents, or factors, that affect the development of cohesion in sport:

environmental, personal, leadership and team factors.

Outline Steiner’s model of actual productivity

Actual productivity = potential productivity - group process losses

What are the 3 theories of group development?

1. Linear theory

2. Cyclical theory

3. Pendular theory

What is the linear theory of group development? What are the 4 stages?

1. Forming

2. Storming

3. Norming

4. Performing

List some causes of social loafing

• Free rider - perception that their effort is unimportant for the outcome

• Minimising strategy - motivated to get by doing as little as possible

• Allocation strategy - save best effort for when most beneficial to self

What is mediational analysis in the context of leadership?

A variable that links independent variables (IVs) and dependent variables (DVs), explaining the relationship between them.

→ transformational leadership is the indirect reinforcer of communication and group cohesion

Outline the basic leadership model

Leadership → Psychological outcomes → Behaviour/performance

What are the key differences between transactional and transformational leadership?

Transactional leadership focuses on rewards and punishments, while transformational leadership inspires effort beyond these incentives.

What is the multi-dimensional model of leadership?  (Chelladurai, 1978, 1990, 1993)

A conceptual framework for studying leadership effectiveness in sports, focusing on interactions between leader, group members, and situation.

Outline the leader behaviours and predicted results according to Arthur et al (2012)

Name some multimodal anxiety reduction techniques

• Stress inoculation training

• Cognitive-affective stress management training

Name some cognitive anxiety reduction techniques

• Relaxation response

• Autogenic training

Name some somatic anxiety reduction techniques

• Progressive relaxation

• Breath control

• Biofeedback

What are some advanced skills in PST?

Controlling anxiety, self-confidence, motivation, attention

Outline Kirschenbaum’s 5-stage model of self-regulation

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Problem identification

Commitment

Execution

Environmental management

Generalisation

Outline 2 components of organic self-talk

Spontaneous self-talk: unintended statements that come to mind in the moment

Goal-directed self-talk: rational response to spontaneous processes, e.g. emotions, thoughts and self-talk

→ directed at self-regulation and performance enhancement

Outline the 3 phases of PST?

1. Education phase - increase athlete awareness of the role that mental skills play in performance

2. Acquisition phase - focus on strategies and techniques for learning the various psychological skills

3. Practice phase: actually putting the skills into practice

What is meant by ‘agency’ within the imagery process?

The author or agent of the behaviour being imagined - one’s self or another person

What is the Functional Equivalence theory in imagery?

Imagery is effective when it activates the same brain systems as real movement

What does SMART stand for in goal setting?

Specific, Measurable, Action-oriented, Realistic, Timely

What are the four types of goals that can be set?

• Mastery approach (e.g., I want to play the best round of golf I can today or improve my time in a mile run by 5 seconds)

• Mastery avoidance (e.g., don’t run the mile slower than last time)

• Performance approach (e.g., finish in the top 10 of the race)

• Performance avoidance (e.g., I want to make sure I’m not the worst golfer in the group today or don’t finish in the bottom half of the field)

What is meant by ‘deliberation’ within the imagery process?

The degree to which imagery is deliberate or spontaneous (i.e., triggered)

What is the symbolic learning theory of imagery?

Imagery functions as a coding system to help individuals understand and acquire movement patterns.

What is Goal Setting Theory (GST)? (Locke and Latham) What are the 5 principles?

A theory by Locke and Latham that outlines principles for effective goal setting to improve performance:

1. Clarity

2. Challenge

3. Commitment

4. Feedback

5. Complexity

What is the Psychoneuromuscular theory of imagery?

It proposes that imagery produces similar neuromuscular activity to actual movement.

→ at lower intensity

What are the 5 key characteristics of the imagery process?
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1. Modality

2. Perspective

3. Angle

4. Agency

5. Deliberation.

What are the two key factors to effective imagery?

• Vividness – using all senses to makes images as vivid and detailed as possible

• Controllability – the ability to manipulate your images so they do what you want them to

What does PETTLEP stand for in effective imagery?

• Physical nature of the task

  • Physical sensations, correct stance, attire

• Environmental specifics

  • Describe the real performance setting

• Task type

  • specific skills or actions required

• Timing of the movement

  • Imagery should match the real-time speed

• Learning

  • Script should be adapted to athletes level

• Emotion of the movement (meaning to the individual)

  • Realistic emotional states (nerves excitement)

• Perspective of the person (internal vs. external)

  • internal (through your own eyes) or external (watching yourself)

Outline the motivational ←→ cognitive, specific ←→ general diagram

1. Motivational Specific (MS)

Motivational + Specific goal

Focuses on imagining a particular achievement or outcome.

2. Motivational General (MG)

Motivational + General emotional state

Focuses on regulating emotions, confidence, and arousal rather than a specific outcome.

3. Cognitive Specific (CS)

Cognitive + Specific skill

Focuses on imagining the execution of a particular technique or movement

4. Cognitive General (CG)

Cognitive + General strategy

Focuses on broader game plans, tactics, and decision-making.

What is narrow-external attentional focus used for?

Used to focus on one or two external cues, e.g. the ball

What attentional strategy do most successful marathon runners use compared to non-elite runners?

Most successful marathoners use an associative attentional strategy, monitoring bodily functions and feelings.

Non-elite runners tend to use a dissociative attentional strategy during the race, e.g. distraction.

What is the difference between associative and dissociative attentional strategies?

Associative strategies involve monitoring internal sensations, while dissociative strategies involve distraction from bodily sensations.

What are the two theories of choking (Roberts et al., 2019)

1. Self-focus theory: proposed reason for failure is too much attention on the skill

2. Distraction theory: proposed reason for failure is too little attention on the skill

What are the three processes of attention according to the information processing approach?

1. Attentional selectivity

2. Attentional capacity

3. Attentional alertness

What the 5 most effective interventions to reduce choking?

• Pre-shot routines

• Secondary task focus

• Exposure to stressful situations

• Quiet eye training

• Left-hand contractions

Outline the study on ACT in footballers by Wilson et al. (2009)

• Aim: Test Attentional Control Theory (ACT) in a sports setting

• Participants: 14 footballers

• Method: Compared low-threat vs high-threat penalty kicks, tracking gaze fixations on the goalkeeper and goal area

• Findings: Under high threat, players fixated quicker, more often, and longer on the goalkeeper (the threat)

• Outcome: Performance declined—shots were more central and easier for the goalkeeper to save

What is narrow-internal attentional focus used for?

Used to mentally rehearse upcoming performance or control an emotional state, e.g. mentally rehearse a golf put

What is broad-external attentional focus used for?

It is used rapidly to assess a situation, perceive several situations at the same time

Outline the attentional control theory (ACT) - Eysenck et al (2007)

What are the 2 systems controlling attention?

• Attention is controlled by 2 systems:

1. Top-down (goal-directed) - you choose what to focus on

2. Bottom-up (stimulus-driven) - something grabs your attention, involuntary

• With anxiety, the top-down system becomes weaker, and the distractions get stronger

• Attention gets pulled away from what we want to focus on

Outline the types of attentional focus and the two dimensions - Nideffer, (1976)

The two dimensions are width (broad vs narrow) and direction (internal vs external)

What is the difference between integrated, identified and introjected regulation?

Integrated: fits with your identity and values

Identified: personally valuing the outcome

Introjected: avoid guilt or shame and boost self-esteem

What does the theory of planned behaviour state?

That a person's intention to perform a behaviour is the primary determinant of whether they will do it.

Assumptions:

• Human behaviour under the voluntary control of the individual

• People think about the consequences and implications of their actions behaviour the decide whether or not to do something

• Therefore intention must be highly correlated with behaviour

What is the Health Belief Model?

A model that explains and predicts health behaviours based on individual attitudes and beliefs.

It is based on 2 key components:

1. Individual desire to avoid illness or get well in case of current illness

2. Individual believes that an exact health act might avoid or treat illness

Outline the 6 stages of the transtheoretical model and their goals

• Pre-contemplation – make inactivity a relevant issue and start thinking about being active.

• Contemplation – to get involved in some type of activity.

• Preparation stage – regular physical activity participation.

• Action stage – maintain regular physical activity.

• Maintenance stage – prevent relapse and maintain physical activity.

• Termination stage.

What is the Theory of Reasoned Action?

A theory suggesting that behavioural intentions are the best predictors of actual behaviour.

^{→ e.g. intending to exercise can lead to going to the gym}

What 6 components make up the Health Belief model?

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1. Perceived susceptibility - chances of getting a condition

2. Perceived severity - opinion on how serious a condition is

3. Perceived benefits - one’s belief in the efficacy of the advised action to reduce risk or seriousness of impact

4. Perceived barriers - opinion of the tangible and psychological costs of the advised action

5. Cues to action - strategies to activate ‘readiness’

6. Self-efficacy - confidence in one’s ability to take action

What is the Big 5 model of personality?

• Openness to experience (originality, need for variety, curiosity)

• Conscientiousness (constraint, achievement striving, self-discipline)

• Extraversion (enthusiasm, sociability, assertiveness, high activity level)

• Agreeableness (amiability, altruism, modesty)

• Neuroticism (nervousness, anxiety, depression, anger)

What is the focus of the phenomenological approach?

• Focus is on the person's understanding and interpretation of themselves and the environment and not on traits or dispositions

• A person's subjective experience and personal views of the world and of themselves are seen as critical

• Has considerable influence and has been adopted by many contemporary sport psychologists

• Emphasises the contribution of a person's interpretation of one's self and environment while considering both trait and situational variables and their interaction