Methods of Philosophizing, Truth, Fallacies, and Biases

Vocabulary flashcards covering key terms on truth, methods of philosophizing, fallacies, and cognitive biases from the lecture notes.

Philosophizing

Thinking or expressing oneself in a rational and logical manner.

A proposition or statement observed to be real or truthful (e.g., "Grass is green").

Fact

Proposition

A statement about the world that may or may not be true; usually expressed in a sentence.

Claim

A statement whose truth is not immediately evident and requires examination (e.g., "iPhone is better than Samsung").

Truth

The real facts about something; the quality or state of being true.

Correspondence Theory of Truth

Holds that a statement is true if it accurately describes or corresponds to reality.

Coherence Theory of Truth

States that a belief is true if it coheres with a system of interconnected beliefs.

Pragmatic Theory of Truth

Considers a proposition true if it is useful to believe and works in practice.

Opinion

A statement that goes beyond facts, offering personal conclusions or perspectives.

Conclusion

A judgment derived from certain facts; the facts may be accepted while the conclusion can still be disputed.

Belief

A conviction not easily explained by facts alone, influenced by experiences and views.

Explanation

A statement that assumes a claim is true and provides reasons for its truth.

Argument

A series of statements intended to convince that a claim or opinion is true.

Socratic Method (Dialectic)

Question-and-answer dialogue aimed at exposing assumptions and reaching clearer understanding.

Reflective Thinking

Carefully examining one’s own thoughts, beliefs, and experiences to gain self-awareness.

Phenomenological Method

Describing lived experiences without bias to grasp their essential meaning from the first-person view.

Analytic Method

Breaking complex ideas into simpler parts to clarify meaning (e.g., analyzing "freedom").

Critical Thinking

Evaluating arguments, spotting logical fallacies, and making reasoned judgments.

Existential Method

Focuses on individual freedom, choice, and responsibility in an often meaningless world.

Fallacy

Faulty reasoning or a false/mistaken idea used in an argument.

Bias

A personal tendency or influence that affects one’s views, not necessarily faulty reasoning.

Appeal to Force

Using threats or coercion to advance an argument.

Ad Hominem (Circumstantial)

Discrediting an argument by pointing to the opponent’s circumstances rather than the issue.

Ad Hominem (Tu quoque) hypocritical

Rejecting a claim by accusing the opponent of hypocrisy.

Appeal to the Popular

Asserting something is acceptable because many people believe or do it.

Appeal to Tradition

Claiming something is correct because it has long been practiced.

Begging the Question

Assuming what one aims to prove; circular reasoning.

Cause-and-Effect Fallacy

Assuming a causal link between unrelated events (post hoc reasoning).

Fallacy of Composition

Assuming what is true of a part must be true of the whole.

Fallacy of Division

Assuming what is true of the whole must be true of each part.

Appeal to Authority (Ad Verecundiam)

Insisting a claim is true because an authority figure endorses it.

Appeal to Ignorance (Ad Ignorantiam)

Arguing a claim is true because it has not been proven false, or vice versa.

Red Herring

Introducing an irrelevant topic to divert attention from the main issue.

Correspondence Bias (Attribution Effect)

Tendency to judge someone’s character based on behavior without considering situational factors.

Confirmation Bias

Seeking or favoring information that supports pre-existing beliefs while dismissing contrary data.

Framing Bias

Focusing on one aspect of a problem while ignoring others, affected by how information is presented.

Hindsight Bias

Viewing past events as having been predictable after they have occurred.

Conflict of Interest

Bias arising when a person’s vested interests influence their judgment or actions.

Cultural Bias

Analyzing issues through the lens of one’s own cultural standards, possibly misjudging others.

Appeal to emotion

Using emotions like sympathy

Ad hominem (guilt by association)

A person associated with someone or something is used to attack them