Geol 126 midterm 1

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What is science?

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rocks rock?

102 Terms

1

What is science?

discovery, world is understandable through observations

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belief knowledge

knowledge unique to each person

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research knowledge

universal knowledge, observable and measurable

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good science

doubt, recognize biases, several theories may be raised to explain one observation

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observation

facts that should be repeatable from one person to the next

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interpretation

hypotheses invented to explain observations

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pseudoscience

reference to authority rather than observation, use science to promote a message even though its not based on science

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plate tectonics theory

outer portion of the earth is broken into plates

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What is a rock?

An aggregate of minerals and mineraloids

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What is a mineral?

  • Naturally occurring

  • inorganic solid

  • orderly internal structure (crystal lattice)

  • definite chemical composition

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whole earth composition

  • iron 32%

  • oxygen 30%

  • silicon 15%

  • magnesium 14%

  • sulfur 3%

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most common silicate materials

quarts and feldspar

  • example: granite

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earth’s core

solid inner iron core

less dense matter began to flow up from the core to make up the surface

deeper into the core, temps rise and pressure increases

accretion (solids form large objects-planets) , differentiation (melting, separates materials, heavier sink-core and lighter rise-crust), contraction (shrinkage from cooling)

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crust composition

  • Oxygen 47% (O)

  • Silicon 28% (Si)

  • Aluminum 8% (Al)

  • Iron 5% (Fe)

  • Calcium 4% (Cl)

  • Sodium 3% (Na)

  • Potassium 2.5% (K)

  • Magnesium 2% (Mg)

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common non-silicate minerals

carbonates, oxides, halides (salts), sulfates, sulfides, minerals composed of one element (gold, copper, sulfur)

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coal

mineraloid NOT a mineral, made from plants- organic matter

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3 types of rocks

igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic

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igneous rocks

  • a melted rock that cools and hardens

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What is the difference between magma and lava?

  • Magma: molten rock beneath the surface

    • pluton- glob of magma

    • sill- magma travelling horizontally

    • dike- magma traveling vertically

  • Lava: molten rock erupted onto the surface

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two kinds of igneous rocks

  • intrusive - cool slowly beneath earth surface

  • extrusive, cool quickly on earth surface

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sedimentary rocks

  • made of disaggregated bits of other rock

  • form at the earth’s surface

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sedimentary rock process

  • weathering attacks preexisting rocks and produces sediment

  • sediment transported by either water, wind, or ice and pile up

  • deposited- delivered and stops moving

    • once in rest needs to be buried to become a rock

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clastic sedimentary rocks

made from grains (pieces) that came from weathering

  • defined by grain size

    • sediment: gravel, sand, silt, clay

    • after burial: conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, shale

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chemical sedimentary rocks

made from chemicals that came from weathering of rocks

  • chemicals from fluids, and if concentration is high enough, becomes minerals

    • ex: carbonates- limestone

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metamorphic rocks

heat and pressure cause preexisting rocks to change

  • occurs in solid NOT melted state

  • protolith (og rock)>> heat and pressure>> metamorphic rock

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rock processes

  • uplift and weathering

  • burial and cementation and compaction

  • heat and pressure

  • melting

  • cooling and crystallization

<ul><li><p>uplift and weathering</p></li><li><p>burial and cementation and compaction</p></li><li><p>heat and pressure</p></li><li><p>melting</p></li><li><p>cooling and crystallization</p></li></ul>
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plate tectonics theory

outer portion of earth is broken into plates

  • plates move and interact

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3 kinds of plate boundaries

divergent, convergent, transform

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divergent boundary

plates pull apart resulting in the formation of new crust from magma

  • passive margin (no effects)

  • where?

    • ocean, rising magma is cooled by water

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convergent boundaries

when plates collide, plates smash together

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types of convergent boundaries

  • Ocean Crust vs. Continental Crust

    • Oceanic crust will always subduct because it is more dense(volcanos arise from subducting crust)

  • Continental Crust vs. Continental Crust

    • They collide resulting in the build up of mountains, produce earthquakes

  • Oceanic Crust vs. Oceanic Crust

    • older plate will give up and be subducted under the younger plate, formation of volcanic islands

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transform boundary

plates slide past each other, earthquake!

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plate tectonics evidence: divergent

mid ocean ridges, age of ocean crust

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plate tectonics evidence: convergent

earthquakes, volcanoes

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general plate tectonics evidence

hot spots and magnetic strips

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importance of plate tectonics

control rock cycle

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environment

set of conditions that exist today in a particular location

  • controls sorting of sediment

  • energy of env controls grain size

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Sorting of sediment

  • Windblown sand: very well sorted

  • Beach sand: well sorted

  • River sand: moderately sorted

  • Glacial sediments: very poorly sorted

<ul><li><p>Windblown sand: very well sorted</p></li><li><p>Beach sand: well sorted</p></li><li><p>River sand: moderately sorted</p></li><li><p>Glacial sediments: very poorly sorted</p></li></ul>
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terrestrial environment

on land NOT in the ocean

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coastal environment

shallow marine environments, lots of fossils come from here

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marine environment

deep sea

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paleoenvironments

ancient environments

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high energy environment

moves large sediment pieces

  • gravel>> conglomerate

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intermediate energy environment

movement, but not too much, can move sediment

  • sand>> sandstone

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low energy environment

can’t really move sediment pieces

  • fine grained sediment

    • silt-clay>> siltstone-shale

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sedimentary structures

physical features formed during sediment transport/ deposition

  • flat laminations

  • ripples

  • dunes

  • mud cracks

  • raindrop impressions

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Flat laminations

grains fall out of suspension

  • low energy/ quiet water

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asymmetric ripples

flow in one direction

  • cross strata dip in direction of flow

  • sediment will be coarser

  • not flat or parallel

  • medium energy

<p>flow in one direction</p><ul><li><p>cross strata dip in direction of flow</p></li><li><p>sediment will be coarser</p></li><li><p>not flat or parallel</p></li><li><p>medium energy</p></li></ul>
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symmetric ripples

back and forth flow

  • tuning fork

  • medium energy

<p>back and forth flow</p><ul><li><p>tuning fork</p></li><li><p>medium energy</p></li></ul>
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dunes

  • asymmetrical

  • constrained by depth of flow (air), so can get huge!

  • subaerial (windblown)

  • high energy

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mud cracks

environment dried out!

  • no flow and indicates water depth

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raindrop impressions

environment dried out but it was also raining

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eolian wind environments

  • well sorted

  • major rock types; sandstone

  • frosted grains bc sand is hitting against it

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beaches

  • well sorted sandstones

  • symmetric ripples indicating oscillatory flow

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braided river

  • major rock types: sandstone and conglomerates

  • high energy

  • moderately to poorly sorted

  • asymmetric cross bedding

  • murky water bc fine grain is carried by water

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glacial environment

  • major rock type: tillite

    • poorly sorted

  • high energy

  • rocks are faceted instead of rounded

    • flattened instead of like in water where its rounded

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nils stensen

fossils were remains of past organisms by using the shark tooth

  • 17th century

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kinds of fossils

body, trace and chemical

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body fossils

physical remains of an organism

  • ex: shells, bones, compressed plants, petrified wood

informs about morphology

  • what It could do when it was alive

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trace fossils

evidence of activity

  • not the organism itself

  • ex: footprints, worm trails, coprolites (fossil poop)

informs about what the organism did and how it interacted with the environment

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chemical fossils

chemical evidence of past life

  • ex: isotopic signatures, organic molecules attributed to life

  • only certain chemicals made by life or certain groups

    • ex: cholesterol or remains of cholesterol

  • informs metabolism

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isotope

Element with same number of protons, different number of neutrons

  • life tends to prefer lighter isotopes

    • concentration of 12C in a rock could indicate the past presence of life, and would represent a chemical fossil

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fossilization potential

  • bias towards hard parts rather than soft parts

  • bias towards low energy

  • bias towards ocean rather than land

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taphonomy processes

  • occurs after the organism dies but before it becomes a fossil

  • organism must survive this process to become a fossil

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types of taphonomy processes

  • Biologic attack

    • Ex. Borers, scavengers

  • Mechanical attack

    • Ex. High energy environments

  • Chemical attack

    • Ex. Weathering

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Steno’s conclusion about geologic time

superposition and original horizontality

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superposition

oldest layer at the bottom with successively younger layers above

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original horizontality

Sedimentary rocks form horizontal layers \n Thus, inclined sedimentary rocks suffered subsequent disturbance (tectonics!)

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crosscutting relationships

Something that cuts across or affects another layer must be younger than the material that’s being affected

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stratigraphic columns

Environmental description of each layer

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fossil succession

George Cuvier- 1800s

  • fossils occur in an order

  • some appeared in a layer and then never appeared again

    • extinction!

William Smith- 1800s

  • rock types change from place to place

  • young with young fossil and old with old fossil, always!

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index fossils

widespread

short lived

can subdivide geologic time into smaller units

  • relative time, no date, just sequence of events

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geologic time scale

a record of geologic events and life forms in Earth’s history

  • relative

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Eon

Phanerozoic

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era

in order from youngest to oldest

  • Cenozoic (age of mammals)

  • Mesozoic (age of dinosaurs)

  • Paleozoic (age of tribolites)

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Paleozoic periods

in order from youngest to oldest

  • Permian

  • Carboniferous

  • Devonian

  • Silurian

  • Ordovician

  • Cambrian

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Mesozoic periods

in order from youngest to oldest

  • Cretaceous

  • Jurassic

  • Triassic

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Cenozoic periods

in order from youngest to oldest

  • Neogene

  • Paleogene

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relative time

  • The sequence in which events took place

  • Chronostratigraphic

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absolute time

  • the actual time (usually measured in years) as determined by radiometric age dating

  • Chronometric

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What rocks can be radiometrically dated?

Igneous and Metamorphic

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time vs rock

time is continuous but abstract and rock is discontinuous but tangible

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meteorites

leftover bits from the formation of solar system

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sedimentary record

  • sediment accumulation rate varies from place to place

  • gives snapshots versus continuous record

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taxonomy

  • the science of classifying organisms

  • looks for differences

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phylogeny

the study of the (evolutionary) relationships between groups of organisms

  • looks for similarities

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species

  • Basic unit of taxonomy and phylogeny

  • Biologic definition

    • A population of organism capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring

  • Genetic definition (better)

    • Based on the similarity of DNA in a population

      • % of similarity

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morphological species concept

based on similarity of appearance

  • morphology = shape

  • DNA encodes for shape

  • Genes control shape, genes control morphology, so both concepts linked

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cladistics

based on parsimony

  • simplest is the best

  • branching, things don’t directly change, different branches to create more diversity

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cladistics vs parsimony

min steps are the best, fewer assumptions

step 1: define characters of taxa

  • find characteristic that is either exclusive or common

step 2: construct character matrix

  • quantitively assign characteristics to the taxa

step 3: construct tree using parsimony

  • how closely taxa are related to each other based on how many characteristics they share

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parsimony tree

clade- include the common ancestor and ALL its descendants

<p>clade- include the common ancestor and ALL its descendants</p>
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paraphyletic

does not include all descedants

<p>does not include all descedants</p>
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poyphyletic

does not contain the most recent common ancestor

<p>does not contain the most recent common ancestor</p>
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DNA

  • deoxyribonucleic acid

  • the blueprint for life

  • polymer of nucleotides

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central dogma of biology

DNA>> RNA>> Protein

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who discovered dna?

Rosalind Franklin, James Watson and Francis Crick

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code of DNA

pairs of 4 nucleotides

  • Sequence of dna catalogs the order of adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine (nucleotides)

  • A+t and g+c, only!

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Replication of DNA

DNA Polymerase copies DNA very accurately

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Transcription of DNA

  • RNA Polymerase converts DNA to mRNA

  • Genes are transcribed into mRNA

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Translation of DNA

  • Ribosomes translate mRNA into proteins

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