AP Psych Unit 1: Introduction and Research Methods

Barnum Effect

The tendency to think vague useless information, such as horoscopes and assessments, are true and applicable

Perspectives

current points of view and sets of assumptions that influence both what psychologists will study and how. Determines what to look for, where to look, and the methods to use.

Empirical Evidence (Empiricism)

Evidence that is carefully gathered through objective observations and carefully measured (think: use data to form conclusions)

Structuralism

Early school of thought; Uses INTROSPECTION and the brain's response to stimuli to discover the structure of the human mind.

Functionalism

An early school of thought that explored how mental and behavioral processes FUNCTION (work) - how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

Basic research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge

Behaviorism

Focus on environmental factors that shape behavior. OBSERVABLE behaviors (not internal/thinking). These include antecedents that trigger a behavior or the consequences from rewards and punishment.

Cognitive Psychology

Study of the brain activity linked with processing information (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).

Psychology

The study using the scientific process, that looks at organisms' behavior and mental processes.

Applied Psychology

Type of psychology that uses psychological principles to help others out; It is useful/applicable to real world (opposite of Basic Psychology)

Biological approach

Considers the natural selection of adaptive traits, genetic predisposition responding to environments, brain mechanisms, and hormone influences on behavior.

Social-cultural Perspective

Analyzes the presence of others, cultural, societal, and family expectations, peer and other group influences, and compelling models (including media) on behavior.

Evolutionary psychology

Examines trends/natural selection overtime in regards to traits, mental abilities, and their adaption from generation to generation through observation

Psychodynamic (Psychoanalytic) psychology

Founded by Freud that focuses on the unconscious and inner conflicts from early childhood experiences.

Humanistic Perspective

Purpose of behavior is to strive to be the best person of one's self by filling the void. Studies patterns in individual's history, integrating mind, body, and behavior, and social cultural forces. They do this by looking at happiness and satisfaction through self-reports(introspection) using talk therapy.

Developmental Psychology

A branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span.

Educational psychology

the study of how psychological processes affect and enhance teaching and learning.

Personality psychology

the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

Social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.

Applied research

Scientific study that aims to solve practical problems. This research is for Applied Psychology.

Industrial-organizational psychology(I/O)

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces $$

Clinical psychology

A branch of psychology that studies, asses, and treats people with psychological disorders.

Psychiatry

medical doctors licensed to PERSCRIBE DRUGS and otherwise treat physical causes of psychological disorders.

Hindsight Bias

The natural tendency to believe that, after seeing the outcome, one would have foreseen it. (knew it all along phenomenon)

Overconfidence

The natural tendency to think that we know more and are more efficient than we actually are.

Hypothesis

prediction of how two or more factors are likely to be related.

Sample

the subgroup of the population that participates in the study

Random Selection

choosing of members of a population so that every individual has an equal chance of being chosen. Purpose is to have a representative sample.

Operational definition

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example human intelligence can be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.

Replication

repeating the essence a of research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic findings extends to other participants and circumstances.

Case Study

A study of one individual or group that had a bizarre and unusual situation that would be unethical to replicate. Phineas Gage is a famous example. Limited to only description (no causation).

Survey

A study of a large group of people through the answering of constant questions either online or in person on paper. Strengths: it is cheap, fast, includes a large number of people, allows for generalizations to be made, and is anonymous. Weaknesses: It does not go in depth, has fixed responses, and it is hard to avoid volunteer bias.

Naturalistic observation

A study of a group or person in their "natural habitat" without disturbance or awareness that can alter their behavior. Strengths: it eliminates lying, is convenient, and generally not expensive. Weaknesses: forces assumptions to be made, is hard to measure, and there is no control.

sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

Population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (ALL potential subjects)

Random sample/selection

a sample that fairly represents a population because because each member has a equal chance of inclusion. This helps to balance extraneous variables.

Correlation

To assess if and how one variable will predict another, or observe two variables' relationship. CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION.

Correlation coefficient

The statistical measurement that reveals how closely two things vary together. +1 is a perfect positive correlation, -1 is a perfect negative correlation, and 0 indicated no correlation. 0-0.1 is no correlation, 0.1-0.3 is a weak correlation, 0.4-0.6 is a moderate correlation, and 0.7-1.0 is a strong correlation.

Scatterplot

Shows correlation by showing how closely negative or positive data trends.

Illusory correlation

the tendency of people to see relationships where they don't exist. People see streaks and patterns in random data. Also, more bizarre events stand out against mundane ones leading to their remembrance and the idea of a correlation. (ex: superstition, stereotyping)

Experiment

Examines cause and effect by manipulating factor and observing isolated responses using experiments and random assignment. ONLY experiments can examine cause and effect. Follows the scientific method and isolates independent and dependent variables by eliminating confounding variables.

Random assignment

Assigning participants randomly to the experimental and control group to minimize preexisting differences between the groups.

Double-blind procedure

An experiment where neither the experimenter or the participants know which group they are in.

Placebo effect

Experimental result caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

Experimental group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

Control group

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Descriptive statistics

Statistical procedures used to summarize sets of scores with respect to central tendencies, variability, and correlation. They are merely observational and inferences cannot be made.

Standard deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score. 68% of data is +/- 1 standard deviation away from the mean and 95% of data is +/- 2 standard deviations away from the mean. Think: Normal Bell Curve.

Independent variable

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect are being studied.

Confounding variable

any other variable that can affect/impact the dependent variable.

Dependent variable

the outcome factor, what is being measured; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Statistical Significance

The difference between experimental conditions that would have occurred by chance less than 95% of trials. P value is less than .05 (or 5%)

Informed consent

An ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they with to participate

Debriefing

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose an any deceptions, to its participants.

Mary Whiton Calkins

The first female psychology student at Harvard that studied under William James. Harvard refused to give her a degree despite graduating at the top of her class. She went on to become the APA's first female president.

Charles Darwin

The scientists that created the theory of evolution and natural selection.

Dorothea Dix

Created the first generation of American mental health facilities (called asylums at the time).

Sigmund Freud

Emphasized the ways emotional responses to childhood experiences and our unconscious though processes affect our behavior. Freudian psychology looked at the psychodynamic approach. Libido (sex) and aggression.

G. Stanley Hall

Focused on childhood development and evolutionary theory. He is the founder/father of developmental psychology and founded the American Psychological Association.

William James

Father of American Psychology. An American who founded a laboratory at Harvard that took a FUNCTIONALIST approach. Studied the evolved functions of thoughts and feelings and their fitness. Wrote a psychology textbook called the principles of psychology.

Abraham Maslow

A humanistic psychologist who looked at how one's current environment affects their growth potential, and the role of love and acceptance.

Carl Rodgers

A humanistic psychologist who looked at how one's current environment affects their growth potential, and the role of love and acceptance.

B.F. Skinner

Believed in behavioralism and that psychology can only be what is observable. Believed that you can measure response to stimuli by not by introspection and that behavior is influenced by learned associations in the process of conditioning.

E.B. Titchener

Aimed to use introspection to determine the mind's structure. Founded Structuralism in America.

Margaret Floy Washburn

Wrote the animal mind and was the first female with a Ph.D in psychology. She was the second female president of the APA.

John B. Watson

Founded Behaviorism; psychology can only be what is observable. Believed that he could train "12 Healthy infants to become anything he so desired."

Wilhelm Wundt

A German scientist that founded a laboratory that took a STRUCTALIST approach to psychology. Used introspection to separate perception and sensation as different processes. Also measured "atoms of the mind" and things such as comprehension.

measures of central tendency

mean, median, mode and range

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

Mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

positive skewness

distribution skewed to right mean > median

negative skewness

distribution skewed to the left, Mean < median

critical thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments or conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

introspection

the process of looking inward in an attempt to directly observe one's own psychological processes

nature-nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture

behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

culture

Beliefs, customs, and traditions of a specific group of people.

positive psychology

the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

SQ3R

a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review

Psychometrics

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

human factors psychology

a branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use

Counseling psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

Theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

regression to the mean

the tendency of extreme scores on a variable to be followed by, or associated with, less extreme scores

Validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

normal curve

the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

Histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

placebo

a fake drug used in the testing of medication