ApPsych Module 31, 32, 33, 34, 35Vocab

ApPsych

Cognition

All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering and communicating

Concepts

A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Prototype

A mental image or best example of a category

Creativity

The ability to produce new and valuable ideas

Convergent Thinking

Narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

Divergent Thinking

Expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions

Algorithm

methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier— but also more error-prone— use of heuristics

Heuristics

A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently. Usually speedier but also more error-prone than an algorithm

Insight

A sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

Conformation Bias

A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Fixation

In Cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem solving 

Intuition

An effortless, immediate automatic feeling or though, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

Representative Heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events of events in terms of how well they seem to represent or match, particular prototypes

Availability Hueristic

Estimating the likelihood of events based of their availability in memory;if instances come readily to be (perhaps because their vividness), we presume such events are common

Overconfidence

The tendency to be more confident than correct— to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements

Belief Perseverance

Clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

Framing

The way an issue is posed; how an issue is worded can significantly affect decisions and judgments

Memory

The persistence of learning over time through the encoding storage, and retrieval of information

Recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill in the blank test.

Recognitions

A measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned

Relearning

A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

Encoding

The process of getting information into the memory system— for example, by extracting meaning 

Storage

The process of retaining embodied information over time

Retrieval

The process of getting information out of memory storage

Parallel Processing

Processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions

Sensory Memory 

The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Short-Term Memory

Activated memory that holds a few items briefly,such as digits of a phone number while calling before the information is stored or forgotten

Long-Term Memory

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of memory. Include the knowledge, skills, and experiences

Working Memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, active, Processing of incoming auditory and visual information and of information received from long-term memory

Explicit Memories

The retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare”

Automatic Processing

The unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

Implicit Memory

The retention of learned skills and classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

Effortful Processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Iconic Memory

A momentary sensory of visual stimuli; a picture-image memory lasting no more than few tenths of a second

Echoic Memory

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

Chunking

The process of organizing things into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

Mnemonics

Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery

Spacing Effect

The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention that is achieved through massed study or practice

Testing effect

Is enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information. Also sometimes referred to as retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning

Shallow Processing

A encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

Deep Processing

Encoding semantically, based on the meaning of words; tends to yield the best retention

Semantic Memory

Explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems

Episodic Memory

Explicit Memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems

Hippocampus

The neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories, of facts and events, for storage

Memory Consolidation

Neural storage of a long-term memory

Flashbulb Memory

A clear sustained memory of an emotionally significant moment or events

Long-Term Potentiation

An increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory 

Priming

The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

Encoding Specificity Principle

The idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

Mood-Congruent Memory

The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood

Serial Position Effect

Our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primary effect) items in a list

Anterograde Amnesia

An inability to form new memories 

Retrograde Amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one’s past

Proactive Interference

The forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information

Retroactive Interference

The backward-acting disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

Repression

A psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

Reconsolidation

A process in which previously stored memories when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

Misinformation Effect

Occurs when misleading information has distorted one’s memory of an event

Source Amnesia

Faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined (Also called source misattribution.)