Final Exam Review Prep (Recap of all content in Exams 1 and 2) - Critical Thinking in Psychology

What is an operational definition?

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study (measured or manipulated)

Which of the following is an example of an operational variable?
a. health history
b. child abuse history
c. IQ
d. personality

C - IQ

What is empiricism (aka empirical methods/research)?

Idea that knowledge comes from observations

Empiricism uses what type of evidence?

Evidence through our senses

_______ is the belief that knowledge comes from observation

Empiricism

What is Skepticism?

Philosophy that ideas must be evaluated on the basis of careful logic and results from scientific investigations

Return to ___________ to refute myths.

Skepticism

What is a hypothesis?

A prediction stated in terms of the study design - the specific outcome the researcher will observe in a study if the theory is accurate.

Difference between Hypothesis and Prediction?

A hypothesis is a tentative answer to a research question and a prediction is a GUESS of the outcome of a study

What are the parts (in order) of the theory data cycle?

- theory
- research question
- research design
- hypothesis- data

What do researchers do in a theory data cycle?

scientists collect data to test, change, or update their theories

What does the theory-data cycle test for regarding good scientific theories?

- Is it falsifiable?
- Does it have parsimony?
- Does it prove anything?

What is a theory?

A set of statements that describe the general principles about how variables relate to one another

State the differences of Research Vs. Experience

- experience has no comparison group
- experience is confounded
- research is better than experience
- research is probabilistic

Why are comparison groups so important?

Comparison groups are essential in research. Comparison groups help to acknowledge we cant have too many difference between the groups (IV and DF).

Name the 5 ways in which intuition is biased

1. Being swayed by a good story
2. availability heuristic
3. present bias
4. confirmation bias
5. blind spot

What is the Availability Heuristic?

Being persuaded by what easily comes to mind

A way in which intuition is biased

What is present bias?

failing to think about what we cannot see - we fail to think about comparison groups

A way in which intuition is biased

What is confirmation bias?

focusing on the evidence we like best "cherry picking" - usually favors your opinion or experience

A way in which intuition is biased

What is the blind spot bias?

biased about being biased. belief that we are not likely to fall prey to other biases. feeling as though biases don't apply to you.

A way in which intuition is biased

Explain the factors of science vs. intuition

- we make mistakes when we base our reasoning on intuition rather than on science

- researcher create comparison groups and look at all the data

What does it mean for research to be probabilistic?

behavioral research is probabilistic, which means that its findings are not expected to explain ALL the cases all the time (i.e there are exceptions)

What's the difference between hypothesis and theory?

a hypothesis is constructed before any applicable research has been done. A theory, on the other hand, is supported by evidence

What is a prediction in research and what are the requirements?

A guess at the outcome of a study/
1. MUST FOLLOW DIRECTLY FROM THE HYPOTHESIS
2. NEEDS TO BE TESTABLE
4. MUST INCLUDE SPECIFIC VARIABLES AND METHODOLOGIES

Can you name the parts of a report paper?

- abstract
- introduction
- methods
-results
-discussion
-references

What is an Abstract?

Summary of the research report that includes hypothesis, procedure, and broad pattern of results

What is an introduction?

outlines the investigated problems in a research report.
describes past research and theories relevant to the problems + introduced the formal hypothesis and specific expectations

What are the methods in a research report?

it describes the the study's design

What are the subsections of the methods section in a research report?

- overview of design
- characteristics of participants
- procedure
- equipment or testing materials

What are the results section of a research report?

the findings are presented by the researcher through description in narrative for, statistical language and material in tables or graphs

What are the 3 types of claims?

1. Frequency
2. Association
3. Casual

What is a frequency claim?

describes a particular rate or degree of a single variable -- involves only using ONE measured variable

What is an Association Claim

argues that one level of a variable is likely to be associated with a particular level of another variable ...involve 2 measured variables that correlate

What are the types of associations under an associational claim?

- positive
- negative
- zero

What is a Positive Association?

a correlation in which high goes with high and low goes with low

What is a Negative Association?

a correlation in which high goes with low and low goes with high

What type of claim make it helpful to make predictions?

An association claim

What is a Casual Claim?

argues that one of the variables is responsible for changing the other variables

What type of claim is the following: "4 in 10 teens admit to texting while driving"?

Frequency Claim

What type of claim is the following: "Single people eat fewer veggies"

Association Claim

What type of claim is the following: "Music Lessons ENHANCE IQ"

Casual Claim

What type of claim is the following: " 71% of people in the U.S support transgender people serving in the military" ?

Frequency Claim

What type of claim is the following: "Girls are more likely to be compulsive texters"?

Association Claims

What type of claim is the following: "Pretending to be batman helps kids stay on task" ?

Casual Claim

Causal claims use ________ that suggests one variable affects the other

language!
ex : cause, enhance, affect, decrease

What is needed to back up a claim?

Validity

What is validity?

refers to the appropriateness of a conclusion or decision - a valid claim is reasonable, accurate, and justifiable

What are the four types of validities (CHAPTER 3)

internal, external, statistical and construct

What is Construct Validity?

An indication of how well a variable was measured or manipulated in a study.

How is Construct Validity measured in a Frequency Claim?

how well the researchers measured their variable of interest

How is Construct Validity measured in an Association Claim?

assess how well measurements were conducted (how did they measure the 2 variables )

How is Construct Validity measured in a Causal Claim?

How well has the researcher measured or manipulated the variables in the study?

How can the researcher prove that the one variable is actually responsible for changing the other variable?

What is Statistical Validity?

The extend to which a study's statistical conclusions are precise, reliable, and replicable ...how well do the numbers support the claim?

How does one measure Statistical Validity in a Frequency Claim?

Asking them what the margin of error was in their estimate

How does one measure Statistical Validity in a Association Claim?

How strong is the estimated association?How precise is the estimated association?Is the association statistically significant?etc.
(slide 29, Ch.3)

How does one measure Statistical Validity in a Casual Claim?

Is there a difference between groups, and how large is it? Is the difference statistically significant?

What is Internal Validity?

the extent to which you can be confident that a cause-and-effect relationship established in a study cannot be explained by other factors

What Claim is the only one that uses Internal validity?

A Casual Claim

How does one measure Internal Validity in a Casual Claim?

- Was the study an experiment?
- Does the study achieve its main purpose?
- Does the study explain the control for random assignment?

What is external validity?

the degree to which the researcher can extend or generalize a study's results to other subjects and situations.

How is External Validity measured in a Frequency Claims, Association Claims, and Causal Claims?

- To what populations, settings, and times can we generalize this type of claim?
- How representative is the sample?

What was the Tuskegee Syphilis Study?

n 1932, the U.S. Public Health Service initiated an experiment in Macon County, Alabama to determine the natural course of untreated, latent syphilis in black males. There was no consent or treatment. Lasted 40 years. Men received free medical exams, meals and burial insurance

What is the Belmont Report?

Defined principles and applications which guide many current medical and behavioral research

What were the 3 basic ethical principles under the Belmont Report?

1. Beneficence - research should have benefits, minimal risks

2. Autonomy (respect for persons)- participants are treated as autonomous

3. Justice - benefits and risks of research should be allocated fairly

What are the 5 APA ethical principles?

1. Beneficence
2. Fidelity and Responsibility
3. Integrity
4. Justice
5. Respect for People's Rights and Dignity

What is Beneficence (APA ethics code)?

Need for research to maximize benefits and minimize any possible harmful effects of participation

What is Fidelity and Responsibility (APA ethics code)

Psychologists establish relationships of trust with those with whom they work (falls under Beneficence)

What is Integrity (APA ethics code)

Seek to promote accuracy, honesty, and truthfulness in the science, teaching, and practice of psychology( do not steal or cheat etc.)(falls under Beneficence)

What is Justice (APA ethics code) ?

psychologists recognize that fairness and justice entitle all persons: to access and benefit from the contributions of psychology and equal quality in the processes and procedures

What is Respect For Persons? (APA ethics code)

- Respect the dignity and worth of all people and the rights of individuals

- Are aware that special safeguards may be necessary to protect the rights and welfare of some persons or communities

- Are aware of and respect cultural, individual, and role differences

- Try to eliminate the effect of biases on their work

What is plagiarism?

Misrepresenting another's work as your own

What is Word-For-Word plagiarism?

Writer copies a section of another person's work word-for-word without providing quotation marks or a citation.

What is Paraphrasing Plagiarism?

Words are indirectly copied, but the ideas are copied without attribution.

What are the 3 ways that psychologists operationalize variables?

1. Report (self) Measures
2. Observational Measures
3. Physiological Measures

What are Self Report Measures in terms of operationalizing in psychology?

operationalizes variable by recording people's answers to questions about themselves in questionnaire/interview

Provide an example of a self-report measure...

Ex: Diener's Five-Item Scale, Ladder of Life, Gratitude of Partner, Gender Identity, Life events

What do self-report measures seek to find?

The different aspects of attitudes, emotions, cognitions and behavior

T/F Self-Report Measures can be about you or another person

True

The following scale questions are examples of what time of measure..."I tell my partner they are the best"" I make sure my partner feels good""I feel like I take my partner for granted"

A self report measure

For a self report measure...Internal reliability if there are _____ items and test-retest reliability if there are _________ constructs

Internal reliability if there are MANY items and test-retest reliability if there are STABLE constructs

What are observational (behavioral) measures in terms of operationalizing in psychology?

operationalizes by recording observable behavior/physical traces of observable behavior

What do observational (behavioral) measures seek to do?

measure behaviors via observations

What are some examples of observational measures?

Ex: IQ tests (fast problem solving), # of tooth marks on a pencil, records on if the person was recently married or divorced.

What type of reliability do observational measures have?

-inter-rater and test/retest reliability

What are Physiological measures in terms of operationalizing in psychology?

operationalizes by recording biological data (brain activity, hormone levels, heart rate)

What do Physiological measures seek to find?

biological responses such as heart rate, galvanic skin response, blood pressure

Out of the 3 ways psychologists typically operationalize variables, which one operationalizes by recording biological data (brain activity, hormone levels, heart rate)?

The Physiological measure

What type of reliability can be found in physiological measures?

test-retest reliability if stable

What is one thing in common all three ways psychologists typically operationalize variables?

they all have scoring protocols / similar pattern of results

reliability = __________________variability = _______________

reliability = consistency
variability = accuracy

What is Reliability?

consistency of results of a measure-consistent pattern of scores every time, helps to determine if we can rely on a particular score

What is Test-retest reliability?

assessed by measuring the same individuals at two points in time and comparing results.

A high correlation between test and retest indicates ___________?

reliability

Simple explanation of inter-rater reliability

The consistency of a measure across raters or observers: do you get the same results when different people conduct the same measurement?

Provide an example for interrater reliability

Based on an assessment criteria checklist, five examiners submit substantially different results for the same student project. This indicates that the assessment checklist has low inter-rater reliability (for example, because the criteria are too subjective).

Provide an example of test/retest reliability

IQ scores-consistent pattern of scores every time measured-people who scored highest at Time 1 should score highest at Time 2 & people who scored lowest at Time 1 should score lowest at Time 2, even if scores increase/decrease overall

Simple explanation of test- retest reliability

The consistency of a measure across time: do you get the same results when you repeat the measurement?

What are the 5 types of validity (CHAPTER 5)

Construct validity
Face validity
Content validity
Criterion validity
Predictive validity

What is Face Validity?

does this test actually measure what it claims to?The content of the measure appears to reflect the construct being measured

Provide an example of Face Validity

A scale that assesses depression, and includes items like low energy, feelings of worthlessness, and sad mood