Intro to Psych: Chapter 7

Thinking and Intelligence

What is an algorithm in problem solving?

A step-by-step rule or procedure that inevitably produces the correct solution.

What is a heuristic?

A general problem-solving shortcut or "rule of thumb" that reduces possible solutions but does not guarantee a correct answer.

When are people most likely to rely on heuristics?

When information is overwhelming, time is limited, the decision seems unimportant, little information is available, or a useful heuristic comes to mind quickly.

Define insight in the context of problem solving.

A sudden, often novel realization of a solution that seems to occur without a conscious strategy.

What is trial and error?

A problem-solving method that involves trying different solutions until one works.

Describe the working-backwards heuristic.

Beginning with the desired end state and then reversing the steps to reach the current position.

Why does breaking a large task into smaller steps help problem solving?

It reduces cognitive load and allows incremental progress toward the solution.

What is functional fixedness?

The inability to see an object as useful for something other than its traditional purpose.

What is a mental set?

Persisting in using a strategy that has worked before even when it is no longer effective.

Quote often used to illustrate mental set and functional fixedness pitfalls?

"Insanity is doing the same thing over and over again and expecting a different result." – Albert Einstein

According to Charles Spearman, what is g?

A single general factor that underlies all intellectual abilities.

Differentiate fluid and crystallized intelligence (Cattell).

Fluid intelligence is the ability to see complex relationships and solve new problems, whereas crystallized intelligence is acquired knowledge and the ability to retrieve it.

Name the three components of Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence.

Analytical, creative, and practical intelligence.

What does Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Theory propose?

That every person possesses at least eight distinct intelligences such as linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, spatial, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic.

Which two of Gardner’s intelligences are combined into emotional intelligence?

Interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences.

Define emotional intelligence.

The ability to understand and manage one’s own emotions, recognize the emotions of others, and use this awareness to guide behavior.

List two traits of emotionally intelligent people.

They delay gratification for long-term goals and read others’ emotions to provide appropriate feedback.

What is creativity?

The ability to generate, create, or discover new ideas, solutions, and possibilities.

What is divergent thinking?

Thinking that explores multiple possible solutions and "outside-the-box" ideas.

What is convergent thinking?

Arriving at one correct or well-established solution to a problem.

Define Intelligence Quotient (IQ).

A score derived from standardized tests designed to measure human intelligence.

What are standardization and norming in test development?

Standardization ensures consistent administration and scoring, while norming involves testing a large sample to establish reference scores for interpretation.

Who created the first modern intelligence test for children and why?

Alfred Binet, to identify children who might struggle in school.

What major change did Lewis Terman make to Binet’s original test?

He standardized the test in the United States, creating the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale.

What is the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)?

A widely used IQ test that assesses verbal and non-verbal skills, developed by David Wechsler.

Which five domains are measured by the current WISC-V?

Verbal comprehension, visual-spatial ability, fluid reasoning, working memory, and processing speed.

What is the Flynn effect?

The observation that average IQ scores have risen significantly from one generation to the next.

What does the bell curve illustrate in IQ testing?

The normal distribution of IQ scores within the population, with most people clustering around the mean of 100.

What percentage of people have IQs between 85 and 115?

Approximately 82 % of the population.

At what IQ score is someone considered intellectually disabled?

An IQ below 70, which includes about 2.2 % of the population.

Name the four subtypes of intellectual disability.

Mild, moderate, severe, and profound.

How do twin studies inform the nature vs. nurture debate on intelligence?

Identical twins show higher IQ correlations than fraternal twins or siblings, even when raised apart, indicating a genetic component.

Explain the range-of-reaction theory.

Genetics set upper and lower limits for IQ, while environmental factors determine where within that range an individual’s actual IQ falls.

What is dysgraphia?

A learning disability that makes writing difficult and often illegible.

What is dyslexia?

A learning disability characterized by difficulty processing letters, leading to letter reversals and reading problems.

Are learning disabilities the same as intellectual disabilities?

No—learning disabilities are specific cognitive impairments and often occur in individuals with average or above-average intelligence.

What is functional fixedness in the candle-mounting problem?

Failing to see the matchbox as a possible candle holder because one is stuck on its usual function.

Why can practice with puzzles like Sudoku improve problem-solving abilities?

Regular engagement enhances strategic thinking, pattern recognition, and mental flexibility.

In the nine-dot problem, why do most people initially fail?

They impose a mental set that constrains lines inside the imaginary square, preventing the outside-the-box solution.

What is a representative sample?

A subset of a population that accurately reflects the demographics and characteristics of the whole group.

Why is a large sample size important in psychological testing?

It increases the likelihood that the sample accurately represents the entire population, improving the validity of norms.

Define standard deviation in IQ testing.

A statistical measure (15 points for IQ) indicating how spread out scores are around the mean.

Give one example of a heuristic other than working backwards.

Breaking a large task into smaller, more manageable steps.

What is meant by "limits of human intuition" in problem solving?

People often rely on quick intuitive answers that feel right but are logically wrong, revealing cognitive biases and heuristics at work.

What is an algorithm in problem solving?

A step-by-step rule or procedure that guarantees a correct solution if followed correctly.

Which problem-solving strategy uses mental shortcuts that reduce the number of solutions but do not guarantee success?

A heuristic.

What is insight in the context of problem solving?

A sudden, often novel, realization of a solution that seems to arrive spontaneously rather than through a deliberate strategy.

Define trial-and-error problem solving.

Trying different solutions repeatedly until the problem is solved.

When are people most likely to rely on heuristics?

When there is too much information, limited decision time, an unimportant decision, little available information, or when a heuristic comes readily to mind.

Describe the working-backwards heuristic.

Beginning at the desired goal state and mentally reversing the steps to reach the current state.

What is functional fixedness?

The inability to perceive an object as being used for something other than its usual function.

Give an example that illustrates functional fixedness from the lecture.

Failing to use a matchbox as a candle holder in the candle-mounting task because one is fixated on the box’s normal function.

What is a mental set?

Persistence in approaching a problem with a strategy that has worked in the past even when it is no longer effective.

According to Charles Spearman, what does the symbol "g" stand for?

General intelligence, a single factor underlying all intellectual abilities.

Differentiate between Cattell’s crystallized and fluid intelligence.

Crystallized intelligence is acquired knowledge and the ability to retrieve it; fluid intelligence is the capacity to see complex relationships and solve novel problems.

Name the three kinds of intelligence in Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory.

Analytical, creative, and practical intelligence.

According to Gardner, how many distinct intelligences does each person possess?

At least eight.

List three of Gardner’s multiple intelligences.

Any three: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, spatial, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist.

What is emotional intelligence?

The capacity to understand one’s own and others’ emotions, show empathy, read social cues, regulate emotions, and respond appropriately.

State two characteristics common to emotionally intelligent people.

They are socially and self-aware, can delay gratification, read others’ emotions well, give appropriate feedback, and often succeed in work and relationships.

Define creativity as discussed in the lecture.

The ability to generate, create, or discover new ideas, solutions, or possibilities.

What kind of thinking is most associated with creativity?

Divergent thinking – thinking “outside the box” to generate multiple possible solutions.

Contrast divergent and convergent thinking.

Divergent thinking produces multiple possible answers; convergent thinking seeks one well-established correct answer.

What does an IQ score represent?

An Intelligence Quotient derived from standardized tests designed to measure intellectual ability.

Why are standardization and norming essential in intelligence testing?

They ensure consistent administration and scoring, and provide reference norms for interpreting individual scores.

Who created the original intelligence test for children that later evolved into the Stanford-Binet?

Alfred Binet.

Which modern intelligence test introduced verbal and non-verbal subtests and is still widely used with adults?

The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS).

What is the Flynn effect?

The observed rise in average IQ scores from one generation to the next.

On most IQ tests, what score is considered the mean (average)?

100.

How many IQ points constitute one standard deviation on the bell curve?

15 points.

What IQ range falls within one standard deviation above and below the mean, and what percent of people fit this range?

85–115; about 82% of the population.

At what IQ score is a person typically considered to have an intellectual disability?

Below 70.

Name the four subtypes of intellectual disability.

Mild, moderate, severe, and profound.

Briefly explain the nature vs. nurture debate in intelligence.

Nature emphasizes inherited genetic factors; nurture stresses environmental influences on intellectual development.

What research evidence supports a genetic component to intelligence?

Higher IQ correlations between identical twins reared together or apart than between siblings or fraternal twins.

Describe the range-of-reaction theory.

Genetics set upper and lower bounds for intelligence; environmental factors determine where within that range a person’s actual IQ falls.

What is a learning disability?

A cognitive disorder that affects specific areas of cognition (e.g., language, reading) without indicating low overall intelligence.

Define dysgraphia.

A learning disability characterized by difficulty writing legibly and translating thoughts into written form.

Define dyslexia.

A learning disability involving difficulty in correctly processing letters, leading to letter reversals and reading challenges.

What heuristic error is illustrated by answering "$0.10" to the bat-and-ball problem without deliberate calculation?

Reliance on intuitive thinking that bypasses analytical reasoning, leading to an incorrect answer due to cognitive bias.

According to the lecture, what profit did the man make in the horse-trading problem?

$20 (he gained $10 on each of two transactions).

In the married-looking-at-unmarried logic problem, is a married person looking at an unmarried person?

Yes – regardless of Anne’s marital status, the statement is true.

What does the "limits of human intuition" section of the lecture illustrate?

That intuitive, rapid answers can be misleading and analytical reasoning is sometimes required for correct solutions.