AP Psychology Cumulative Study Guide

Flashcards covering key vocabulary terms from the AP Psychology Foundations and Social Psychology units, based on lecture notes.

Functionalism

Emphasizes the practical purposes and adaptive functions of mental processes and behavior.

Structuralism

Focused on understanding the structure of consciousness by breaking down mental processes into their basic elements.

Psychoanalytic

Emphasizes the influence of the unconscious mind on human behavior and personality.

Behaviorism

Focuses on observable behaviors and how they are shaped by environmental stimuli and consequences.

Humanistic

Focuses on the individual's capacity for growth, self-actualization, and positive potential.

Cognitive

Focuses on the study of internal mental processes, including thinking, memory, and perception, and how they influence behavior.

Biological

Emphasizes the role of biology in shaping thoughts, behaviors, and mental processes.

Evolutionary

Application of Darwin's theory of evolution, particularly natural selection, to various fields of study, including psychology, economics, and social sciences.

Observational research

Researchers systematically observe and record behavior, events, or phenomena without intervening or manipulating the situation.

Experimental research

Systematic approach to investigation where researchers actively manipulate one or more variables to observe the effects on another variable.

Correlational research

Examines the relationships between two or more variables.

Standard deviation

Measure of dispersion or scatter in a data set relative to the data's central mean value.

Placebo effect

A measurable improvement in health or behavior that occurs in response to a fake treatment.

Absolute threshold

The minimum stimulation needed to register a particular stimulus fifty percent of the time.

Difference Threshold (JND)

The smallest difference in stimulus intensity that a specific sense can detect.

Weber’s Law

The size of JND is a constant proportion of the original threshold size.

Signal detection theory

A model for predicting how and when a person will detect weak stimuli, partly based on context.

Sensory adaptation

Gradual decline in sensitivity to prolonged exposure to a stimulus.

Gestalt psychology

Looks at the human mind and behavior as a whole.

Subconscious mind

Part of the mind that operates below the level of conscious awareness

Circadian rhythm

Internal biological clock that regulates many of your body's processes over a 24-hour period

Insomnia

A sleep disorder that makes it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, or wake up feeling well-rested.

Narcolepsy

A chronic neurological disorder that causes excessive daytime sleepiness.

Night terrors

Episodes of panic or fear that occur during sleep, usually in the first half of the night.

Hypnosis

A trance state characterized by heightened suggestibility and focused attention.

Meditation

A practice that helps individuals focus or clear their minds using a combination of mental and physical techniques.

Drug Abuse

Involves the excessive or inappropriate use of drugs, leading to harmful consequences for the individual and/or society.

UCS

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.

UCR

The unlearned, natural response to the UCS.

CS

A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with the UCS, triggers a conditioned response.

CR

The learned response to the previously neutral but now conditioned stimulus.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a desirable stimulus to increase behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing an aversive stimulus to increase behavior.

Positive Punishment

Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease behavior.

Negative Punishment

Taking away a desirable stimulus to decrease behavior.

Acquisition

The initial stage of learning when a response is first established.

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response when the CS is no longer paired with the UCS.

Generalization

Responding similarly to stimuli that resemble the CS.

Fixed Ratio

Reinforcement after a set number of responses.

Variable Ratio

Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses.

Fixed Interval

Reinforcement after a fixed amount of time.

Variable Interval

Reinforcement after varying time intervals.

Schemas

Mental frameworks or concepts that help organize and interpret information.

Encoding

The process of transforming sensory input into a form that can be stored in memory.

Storage

The retention of encoded information over time.

Retrieval

The process of bringing stored information into conscious awareness.

Primacy Effect

Tendency to recall the first items in a list.

Recency Effect

Tendency to recall the last items in a list (STM).

Morpheme

The smallest unit of meaning in a language.

Phoneme

The smallest unit of sound in a language.

Telegraphic speech

Simple two- or three-word phrases used by toddlers that omit less critical words.

Overregulations

Applying grammar rules too broadly, even when incorrect.

Underregulations

Using a word too narrowly.

Drive theory

Proposes that physiological needs create an aroused state (drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy that need.

Incentives

External stimuli that motivate behavior, often by promising a reward or avoiding punishment.

Intrinsic motivation

Driven by internal rewards - personal satisfaction, interest, or growth.

External motivation

Driven by external rewards - money, grades, or approval.

Gross motor skills

Large muscle groups.

Fine motor skills

Small, precise movements.

Temperament

A baby’s basic personality or behavioral style.

Object Permanence

Understanding that objects still exist even when out of sight.

Conservation

Understanding that quantity doesn’t change even if appearance does.

Fluid Intelligence

Problem-solving, speed - Declines with age.

Crystallized Intelligence

Accumulated knowledge - Stays stable or increases.

Openness to Experience

Imagination, creativity, openness to new experiences.

Conscientiousness

Organization, responsibility, dependability.

Extraversion

Sociability, assertiveness, energy.

Agreeableness

Compassion, cooperation, trust in others.

Neuroticism

Emotional instability, anxiety, moodiness.

Id

Operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification.

Ego

Operates on the reality principle, mediating between the id and superego.

Superego

Represents internalized moral standards and ideals.

Medical Model

Views psychological disorders as illnesses with biological causes.

Etiology

The cause or origin of a disorder.

Conformity

Adjusting behavior or thinking to align with a group standard.

Obedience

Following direct commands, especially from an authority figure.

Bystander Effect

People are less likely to help in an emergency when others are present.

Groupthink

Group members suppress dissenting opinions to maintain harmony.

Diffusion of Responsibility

When in a group, individuals feel less personally accountable for taking action.

F.A.E. Fundamental Attribution Error

Tendency to overestimate personal traits and underestimate situational factors when explaining others' behavior.

Stereotype

Oversimplified belief about a group (cognitive).

Prejudice

Negative attitude toward a group (emotional).

Discrimination

Unjust behavior toward a group (behavioral).

In-group bias

Favoring your own group.

Illusory Correlation

Perceiving a relationship where none exists.

Cognitive dissonance

Discomfort from holding conflicting thoughts or behaviors.

Self-effacing bias

Attributing success to others or external factors, and failure to oneself.

Self-serving bias

Attributing success to yourself (internal) and failure to external factors.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

Expectations influence behavior, causing the expectation to come true.

Aggression

Behavior intended to harm.