African-Americans in the North and South

What was the purpose of the SCLC's campaigns after Kennedy's assassination?

To pressure Johnson into reviving the Civil Rights Bill Kennedy had introduced by targeting cities that would produce maximum media attention.

What kind of protests were organised in St Augustine, Florida, in early 1964?

Sit-ins, swim-ins, and wade-ins at segregated facilities, provoking violence from locals and the Klan.

What was the goal of the Mississippi Freedom Summer in 1964?

To increase the black vote by registering voters, teaching literacy and civics, and promoting the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP).

Who were the three civil rights workers killed in Mississippi during Freedom Summer?

James Chaney (black Mississippian), and Michael Schwerner and Andrew Goodman (white northerners).

How many black residents attempted to register to vote in Mississippi during Freedom Summer, and how many were approved?

Approximately 17,000 attempted, but only 1,600 were approved.

What role did Fannie Lou Hamer play in the MFDP?

She was an inspiring speaker, delegate of the MFDP, and active in anti-war and feminist movements.

Why did the SCLC focus on Selma in 1965?

Because the failure of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to address voting rights made Selma a key target to push for voter registration and civil rights legislation.

What was the situation in Selma regarding voter registration?

Half the population of 30,000 was black, but only 23 were registered to vote.

What happened during the march from Selma to Montgomery, known as "Bloody Sunday"?

Marchers were attacked by state troopers using clubs and tear gas, drawing national attention and pressuring Congress to pass the Voting Rights Act.

How did Sheriff Jim Clark of Selma compare to other segregationist officials?

He was as violent and aggressive as Bull Connor in Birmingham, enforcing racial oppression through brutal tactics.

What criticism did SNCC activists have of King and the SCLC?

They accused them of leaving a "string of embittered cities" by moving on after gaining maximum media attention, and of fostering leader worship and a messiah complex.

Why were some Northern civil rights activists critical of King and the SCLC?

They received most of the movement's donations and were increasingly spending them on campaigns in the North rather than focusing on the South.

Why did Malcolm X leave the Nation of Islam (NOI)?

He was suspended by Elijah Muhammad after controversial comments, learned of Muhammad's extramarital affairs, and clashed with other ministers over his high media profile.

What religion did Malcolm X convert to after leaving the NOI?

Sunni Islam, following a pilgrimage to Mecca.

What organisations did Malcolm X found after leaving the NOI?

Muslim Mosque Inc. and the Organisation of African-American Unity (OAAU).

How did Malcolm X's position towards southern civil rights groups change before his assassination?

He moved toward a compromise, renouncing previous criticisms of King and other groups while attacking the Nation of Islam.

When and how was Malcolm X assassinated?

In February 1965, onstage at an OAAU meeting, by two gunmen from the NOI.

How did Elijah Muhammad respond to Malcolm X's assassination?

He denied NOI involvement but said Malcolm "got what he deserved."

What was Ossie Davis' main argument in his eulogy for Malcolm X?

That Malcolm X should be honoured because he was not violent, was a bold and controversial leader, and truly understood and spoke for the problems facing African-Americans.

What was Martin Luther King's message to Malcolm X's widow?

He expressed sadness, acknowledged Malcolm's ability to highlight racial issues, and offered personal support as a friend during her difficult time.

What was Johnson's record on civil rights as a southern senator?

He did not sign the 1956 Southern Manifesto but ensured Eisenhower's 1957 Civil Rights Bill was examined and weakened by a committee headed by racist Senator James Eastland.

How did Johnson handle Kennedy's Civil Rights Bill as president?

He used enormous commitment and political skill to get the bill through Congress despite opposition and a violent turn in the movement after 1965.

What insight did Johnson share about human nature in 1960?

He said if you convince the lowest white man he's better than the best black man, he won't notice being exploited.

Why was civil rights legislation part of the wider context of Johnson's 'Great Society'?

It aimed to level the playing field and address inequality as part of Johnson's ambitious domestic reform agenda.

How did Johnson persuade Congress to support the Civil Rights Act of 1964?

He called in favors, used political pressure, and even suggested to Dixiecrats that African-Americans would have no excuses left for inferiority.

What opposition did the 1964 Civil Rights Act face in Congress?

A 54-day filibuster by Dixiecrats, including Johnson's former mentor Richard Russell.

When was the Civil Rights Act of 1964 signed into law?

July 1964.

What were the main provisions of the 1964 Civil Rights Act?

It made de jure segregation a federal crime, advanced school desegregation, and established the Equal Opportunity Commission.

Why was the 1964 Act insufficient regarding voting rights?

It did not address literacy tests, poll taxes, or other barriers to black voter registration.

What did the Voting Rights Act of 1965 achieve?

It abolished literacy tests, poll taxes, and "constitutional interpretation" tests, and established federal registrars to enforce voting rights.

What was the impact of the Voting Rights Act by the end of 1966?

Only four Southern states had less than half of their African-American population registered; Mississippi had 59% registered.

How did the number of elected black officials change after the Voting Rights Act?

It increased twelve-fold over the next decade.

What did the Civil Rights Act of 1968 accomplish?

It outlawed racial discrimination in the sale or rental of houses.

How is Johnson's civil rights legacy viewed?

He delivered the most effective civil rights legislation in American history despite political challenges, and 70% of those who came to see him lying in state were black.

Who was Stokely Carmichael and what was his role in the Civil Rights Movement?

Stokely Carmichael (1941-98) was a highly skilled orator and activist who rose from participating in the Freedom Rides in 1961 to become head of the SNCC by 1966, where he popularised the term 'Black Power,' advocating a more militant approach; he later became Prime Minister of the Black Panther Party.

What shift did Martin Luther King and the SCLC make in focus after 1965?

They shifted attention northward to focus on economic justice, aiming to secure job opportunities, housing, and better living conditions for African-Americans, rather than solely targeting segregation.

Why did the Chicago campaign of 1966 fail?

Poor planning, lack of political support from Mayor Richard Daley, violent opposition from white residents, and tactics that did not address core concerns like police brutality, unemployment, and poor housing conditions.

What was Operation Breadbasket?

A more limited economic boycott campaign led by Jesse Jackson after King left Chicago, focusing on improving employment opportunities and economic conditions for African-American communities.

What was the purpose of James Meredith's march in June 1966?

To symbolically continue the struggle for civil rights by marching 200 miles from Memphis to Jackson, Mississippi, promoting black voter registration and drawing attention to ongoing racial inequality.

How did Stokely Carmichael influence the march led by King?

He introduced a more militant tone, calling for 'Black Power,' and altered traditional slogans to express frustration at government inaction and demand radical change.

What were King's concerns about Carmichael's militancy?

King worried that the militant approach could alienate white moderates and President Johnson, potentially undermining broader support for civil rights reforms.

What was King's plan for Washington in 1968?

To organise a multi-racial occupation called "Resurrection City," where poor people would camp in the heart of the capital to publicly highlight hunger and poverty and pressure legislators to act.

Who encouraged King to bring poor people to Washington?

Bobby Kennedy, then a senator, encouraged King to bring the poor to Washington to make national attention focus on poverty, which had been overshadowed by the Vietnam War.

When and how did Martin Luther King die?

He was assassinated on 4 April 1968 in Memphis, Tennessee, by a drifter and petty criminal named James Earl Ray, shortly after advocating for sanitation workers and economic justice.

What was the immediate impact of King's assassination?

It triggered nationwide eulogies, public mourning, and a series of riots, highlighting the anger and grief of African-American communities.

What does Resurrection City illustrate about the Poor People's Campaign?

It shows the effort to involve both poor and middle-class Americans to raise awareness of poverty nationwide, though the actual camp could accommodate only 3,000 of the 10,000 expected participants.

How did middle-class whites respond to the Poor People's Campaign?

Many donated substantial sums, often motivated by a sense of guilt, though some remained indifferent to the struggles of the poor despite the campaign's public visibility.

What triggered the riots in US ghettos between 1965 and 1968?

The riots were sparked by systemic racial and economic inequalities, beginning with the Watts riot in Los Angeles in 1965, which saw 34 deaths, 3,500 arrests, and $40 million in damage.

How widespread were these riots?

Over 200 cities experienced disturbances leading up to King's assassination, and including sporadic incidents to 1972, there were 250 deaths, 10,000 serious injuries, and 60,000 arrests.

What did the Kerner Commission conclude about American society?

It concluded that the nation was moving toward "two societies, one black, one white—separate and unequal," echoing Plessy v. Ferguson (1896).

What were the twelve causes of the riots identified by the Kerner Commission?

First-level intensity: 1) Police practices, 2) Unemployment/underemployment, 3) Inadequate housing.

Second-level intensity: 4) Inadequate education, 5) Poor recreation facilities, 6) Ineffective political structures and grievance resolution.

Third-level intensity: 7) Disrespectful white attitudes, 8) Discriminatory justice administration, 9) Inadequacy of federal programmes, 10) Inadequacy of municipal services, 11) Discriminatory consumer and credit practices, 12) Inadequate welfare programmes.

How did media coverage affect public perception of the riots?

National and international media coverage highlighted explosive racial tensions and economic inequality, challenging the notion of post-war social progress in the US.

What was Johnson's reaction to the riots?

He felt frustrated, believing he had done more than any previous president to help African-Americans, but recognised that his personality and political skill could not fully resolve the country's deep social and economic issues.

What did the Kerner Commission say about the typical rioter?

The typical rioter was a teenager or young adult, often a lifelong city resident and high school dropout, seeking fuller participation in society and material benefits rather than rejecting the American system.

How did the riots affect Johnson's civil rights legacy?

While Johnson completed a legislative revolution for African-Americans, the riots exposed economic problems in the ghettos, signalling that political gains alone were insufficient and costly economic reform was needed.

Why did the riots keep civil rights in the national spotlight?

Radicalisation and widespread unrest ensured that racial and economic inequalities remained a central issue in public discourse, despite other media focus on Vietnam and other rights movements.