American Yawp ch 19 "American Empire"

The Concept of "Empire"

closing of the frontier, the U.S. sought new markets and resources to fuel its growing economy. This drove expansion into the Caribbean, Latin America, and the Pacific.

Spanish-American War (1898): The U.S. defeated Spain, acquiring Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. This marked a significant shift toward imperialism, with the U.S. asserting control over territories overseas.

Debate Over Imperialism: American imperialism faced domestic opposition, particularly from anti-imperialists who argued it violated democratic ideals. However, proponents, including Theodore Roosevelt, believed empire was vital for national strength and global power.

Philippine-American War: After annexing the Philippines, the U.S. faced resistance from Filipino nationalists. The brutal conflict raised moral questions about the U.S.'s role as an imperial power.

Panama Canal: The U.S. built the Panama Canal, solidifying its dominance in the Western Hemisphere and increasing its military and economic reach.

Ideological Justifications: U.S. imperialism was justified through ideas like the "White Man's Burden," the belief in spreading democracy and civilization to "lesser" nations, and the desire to increase American prestige.

American Intervention in China

Open Door Policy (1899):

As European powers and Japan carved out spheres of influence in China, the U.S. sought to ensure equal trading rights for all nations in China. The Open Door Policy advocated for open access to Chinese markets, protecting American economic interests without formal territorial control.

Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901):

A nationalist uprising against foreign influence in China, particularly against Christian missionaries and foreign nationals. The U.S., along with several other foreign powers, sent troops to suppress the rebellion and protect their interests in China.

Economic Interests:

American businesses sought to capitalize on China's vast market, especially for agricultural and industrial goods. The U.S. government worked to maintain an open economic environment for American companies, ensuring they could compete with European and Japanese enterprises in the region.

Political and Military Influence:

The U.S. increasingly used its political and military power to maintain influence in China, aligning with European powers to safeguard American access to Chinese markets and prevent any one nation from dominating China.

U.S. and China in the Early 20th Century:

While the U.S. didn't seek territorial control in China, it became heavily involved in the country's politics and economy. The chapter also touches on the ways American ideas of democracy and trade shaped U.S. policy in the region.

American Intervention in Mexico

Mexican Revolution (1910):

driven by dissatisfaction with the long rule of dictator Porfirio Díaz. Various factions including peasants and workers fought for reforms land redistribution, and political change. The US had economic interests in Mexico and was concerned about the revolution's instability, as American businesses had significant investments in Mexican oil, mining, and agriculture.

Wilson's "Moral Diplomacy":

President Woodrow Wilson's foreign policy, known as "moral diplomacy," emphasized promoting democratic governance and human rights. Wilson's actions in Mexico often contradicted these ideals, he supported factions in the Mexican Revolution while intervening militarily whenserved US interests

Intervention in Veracruz (1914)

In 1914 Wilson ordered the US Navy to occupy the Mexican port of Veracruz after a US sailor was arrested. The occupation was aimed at preventing German arms shipments to Mexican revolutionary factions and to assert American influence. The intervention led to significant tension between the U.S. and Mexico with many Mexicans viewing it as an imperialistic act

The Punitive Expedition (1916-1917)After Pancho Villa a Mexican revolutionary leaderattacked the U.S. town of Columbus, New Mexico Wilson sent General John J Pershing to lead a punitive expedition into northern Mexico to capture Villa The expedition failed to apprehend Villa and ended without achieving its goalshighlighting the difficulties of US military intervention in Mexico.

Economic and Political Interests:

US businesses, especially oil companies had significant economic stakes in Mexico and American leaders were concerned about the nationalization of resources and the disruption of American investment Govsought to influence the political outcome of the Mexican Revolutionto ensure stability and protect its economic interests

American missionaries

American missionaries sought to spread Christianity and Western values across the world, often focusing on education, healthcare, and social reform. They believed it was their duty to "civilize" indigenous populations, a concept tied to the idea of the "White Man's Burden."

Missionary Work in China:

Missionaries were among the first Americans to establish a presence in China. They helped open doors for American trade and political influence, but their efforts were also met with resistance from local populations, especially during the Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901), when anti-foreign sentiment flared.

Missionaries in Africa:

In Africa, American missionaries aimed to convert people to Christianity while also establishing schools and hospitals. Their work was often intertwined with colonial interests, as many missionaries supported European imperialist goals in Africa.

Missionaries in Latin America:

Missionaries also worked in Latin America, where they often sought to spread Christianity and assist with social development. Their role was complicated by the ongoing influence of the Catholic Church and the broader dynamics of U.S. foreign policy in the region.

American Missionaries and U.S. Imperialism:

Missionaries were sometimes seen as tools of American imperialism. While they may have had genuine religious and humanitarian motivations, their presence often facilitated American political and economic interests in foreign regions, laying the groundwork for U.S. expansion and influence.

Missionaries and the "Civilizing Mission":

The missionary work was closely tied to the idea of the "civilizing mission," where Americans believed that spreading Christianity and Western culture was part of a moral obligation to help non-Western societies. This concept was often intertwined with imperialist and racist ideologies.

The U.S.S. Maine

On February 15, 1898, the U.S.S. Maine exploded in Havana Harbor, killing 266 American sailors. The cause of the explosion was unclear, but the incident was widely reported in the U.S. press as an attack by Spain.

Yellow Journalism:

The explosion was heavily covered by the U.S. press, especially by newspapers led by William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer. The sensationalized coverage (known as "yellow journalism") played a major role in inflaming public opinion and pushing the U.S. toward war with Spain.

The Cry for War:

Following the explosion, cries of "Remember the Maine, to Hell with Spain!" became a rallying cry for war. Many Americans, influenced by the press, demanded action against Spain, which was seen as the enemy despite the lack of solid evidence linking Spain to the explosion.

The Role in the Spanish-American War:

The Maine incident contributed to the outbreak of the Spanish-American War in April 1898. While the cause of the explosion remained disputed, the event, combined with broader imperial and economic interests in Cuba, led to the U.S. declaring war on Spain.

Investigation and Aftermath:

An official U.S. Navy inquiry suggested that the explosion was caused by a mine, though this theory was never conclusively proven. Later investigations, including one in the 1970s, suggested that the explosion may have been due to an internal accident, rather than an external attack.

William McKinley

elected in 1896, was a former congressman and governor of Ohio. He ran on a platform of economic prosperity, supporting protective tariffs and the gold standard. His victory marked the end of the Populist movement and the beginning of the era of American imperialism.

Spanish-American War (1898):

McKinley's presidency is most noted for leading the U.S. into the Spanish-American War. While initially reluctant to go to war, McKinley was swayed by public pressure, particularly after the sinking of the U.S.S. Maine and the role of yellow journalism. The war resulted in the U.S. defeating Spain and gaining territories like Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, marking the U.S.'s emergence as an imperial power.

Imperialism and the Philippines:

McKinley played a key role in the decision to annex the Philippines, a move that sparked debates about American imperialism. He justified the annexation by claiming it was America's duty to "civilize" the Filipino people, a belief rooted in both strategic and racial ideologies. This decision led to the Philippine-American War, a brutal conflict against Filipino independence fighters.

The Open Door Policy:

McKinley's administration also focused on expanding American influence in Asia. The Open Door Policy (1899) was a diplomatic initiative to ensure equal trade rights in China and prevent European powers from carving out exclusive economic zones. This policy reflected McKinley's belief in the importance of foreign markets for American prosperity.

Economic Policy and the Gold Standard:

McKinley supported the gold standard, believing it would stabilize the U.S. economy and attract foreign investment. His economic policies were aimed at protecting American industries, which appealed to the business community and helped him maintain political support.

Yellow Journalists

refers to the use of sensationalized, exaggerated, and sometimes fabricated stories to attract readers and increase circulation. This style of reporting often prioritized drama and scandal over factual accuracy, manipulating emotions to sway public opinion.

Role in the Spanish-American War:

Yellow journalists, particularly those working for Joseph Pulitzer's New York World and William Randolph Hearst's New York Journal, played a critical role in stirring up public support for the Spanish-American War. The media exaggerated the plight of Cuban civilians under Spanish rule and sensationalized the explosion of the U.S.S. Maine, using inflammatory headlines like "Remember the Maine, to Hell with Spain!" to drum up war sentiment.

Cuba and the Struggle for Independence:

The coverage of the Cuban struggle for independence from Spain was a major focus of yellow journalism. Journalists exaggerated atrocities committed by Spanish forces and portrayed the Cuban rebels as heroic fighters. This biased reporting helped fuel American public anger toward Spain, pushing the U.S. toward war.

Impact on Public Opinion:

The sensationalist stories created by yellow journalists stirred nationalistic feelings, making Americans more sympathetic to the Cuban cause and eager for military intervention. The press played a major role in shaping the narrative of the war, often presenting it as a moral crusade to free Cuba from Spanish tyranny.

The Spanish-American War

The U.S. was motivated by a mix of humanitarian sympathy for Cuban rebels fighting Spanish rule and economic interests in Cuba. The Maine explosion in Havana Harbor, which killed 266 Americans, was blamed on Spain and helped ignite war fever. Public outrage, fueled by yellow journalism, led to demands for military action.

Yellow Journalism's Role:

Sensationalist newspapers, notably by Hearst and Pulitzer, exaggerated Spanish atrocities in Cuba and blamed Spain for the Maine disaster, stirring up public emotions and pushing the U.S. toward war.

War and Key Battles:

The war was brief (April to August 1898). Key victories included Admiral Dewey's destruction of the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay and the U.S. Army's capture of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. Theodore Roosevelt and the Rough Riders became famous for their charge up San Juan Hill in Cuba.

Treaty of Paris (1898):

The war ended with the Treaty of Paris, where Spain ceded Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the U.S., marking the end of Spanish colonial rule. The U.S. now controlled territories outside the continental U.S., signaling its new role as an imperial power.

Philippine-American War:

The annexation of the Philippines led to a bloody conflict with Filipino nationalists, resulting in thousands of deaths and highlighting tensions about imperialism. The war sparked debates over U.S. treatment of colonized peoples and the morality of imperial expansion.

Impact on U.S. Foreign Policy:

The war marked the U.S.'s shift from isolationism to active involvement in global affairs, establishing it as an imperial power in the Caribbean and Pacific. The acquisition of overseas territories set the stage for future military and economic interventions in these regions.

The Philippine-American War

began in February 1899, when fighting broke out between U.S. forces and Filipino insurgents. Aguinaldo declared independence, and the Filipino resistance sought to establish a republic free from American control.

Brutal Tactics and Guerrilla Warfare:

The war featured brutal tactics, with the U.S. employing scorched-earth policies, concentration camps, and widespread destruction to crush Filipino resistance. Filipino forces fought back with guerrilla tactics, making the war long and costly. The U.S. military faced difficulty in suppressing the insurgents, and atrocities were committed on both sides.

The U.S. Response:

The U.S. military, under General Arthur MacArthur and others, responded with overwhelming force. The U.S. also employed psychological tactics, including the use of "water cure" (a form of waterboarding) and other forms of torture to extract information and suppress resistance.

Civilian Impact:

The war devastated the Filipino civilian population, with thousands dying from combat, starvation, disease, and American reprisals. The U.S. government downplayed the scale of the devastation, though reports and later investigations revealed the war's heavy toll on both soldiers and civilians.

End of the War and Aftermath:

By 1902, the U.S. declared victory, and Aguinaldo was captured. The war officially ended, but sporadic resistance continued until 1913. The U.S. established a colonial government in the Philippines, which lasted until the country gained independence in 1946.

Debates Over Imperialism:

The war sparked significant debate within the U.S. about the morality of imperialism. Anti-imperialists, including figures like Mark Twain and William Jennings Bryan, argued that the war contradicted American democratic ideals, while imperialists justified the war as part of the US civilizing mission and global destiny

Anti-Imperalism

Anti-imperialists viewed imperialism as incompatible with American democratic values. They argued that expanding the U.S. empire contradicted the principles of self-determination and liberty that the U.S. had historically championed.

Key Figures and Groups:

Key figures like Mark Twain, Andrew Carnegie, and William Jennings Bryan, along with organizations like the Anti-Imperialist League, led the movement. The league opposed the annexation of the Philippines, seeing it as a betrayal of American ideals.

Arguments Against Imperialism:

Violation of Values: Critics believed imperialism went against the U.S. tradition of self-government and democracy.

Racial and Moral Concerns: Anti-imperialists viewed the idea of "civilizing" non-white populations as unjust and racially exploitative.

Economic and Military Costs: Maintaining an empire would burden the U.S. economically and militarily, diverting resources from domestic concerns.

Threat to Democracy: Some feared that imperialism would centralize power in the executive branch, undermining democratic checks and balances.

Public Debate and Political Impact:

The movement gained visibility, particularly during the Philippine-American War. Though imperialist sentiment was strong under leaders like Theodore Roosevelt, anti-imperialists influenced public opinion. The debate became a major issue in the 1900 election, though imperialists ultimately prevailed.

Legacy:

The anti-imperialist movement didn't stop U.S. imperialism, but it shaped future foreign policy debates. The ethical questions it raised about empire persisted, influencing later U.S. actions in decolonization and the Cold War.

Theodore Roosevelt

Presidency (1901-1909):

Roosevelt pushed for a more aggressive foreign policy.

Emphasized expanding U.S. influence globally, marking a shift to imperialism.

The Roosevelt Corollary (1904):

An extension of the Monroe Doctrine.

Stated that the U.S. could intervene in Latin American countries to stabilize them and protect American interests.

Spanish-American War (1898):

Resulted in the U.S. acquiring territories such as Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.

Marked the U.S. as a colonial power, signaling the nation's emergence as a global empire.

Expansion of the U.S. Navy:

Roosevelt focused on building a powerful navy to project American strength.

The Great White Fleet was sent on a world tour to demonstrate naval power.

Panama Canal:

Roosevelt oversaw the construction of the Panama Canal, which would connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, enhancing U.S. trade and military mobility.

U.S. supported Panama's independence from Colombia, enabling the canal's construction.

Imperialism in Asia:

The U.S. also expanded its influence in Asia, particularly with the acquisition of the Philippines and intervention in China.

Big Stick Diplomacy:

Roosevelt's famous policy: "Speak softly and carry a big stick."

Emphasized the use of military power alongside diplomatic negotiations to achieve U.S. goals.

Impact of Roosevelt's Policies:

Shaped U.S. involvement in world affairs and laid the foundation for future interventions in Latin America and around the world.

"The Big Stick," "The Roosevelt Corollary," and Theodore Roosevelt's Foreign Policy

Big Stick Diplomacy

"Speak softly and carry a big stick": Roosevelt's guiding foreign policy approach.

Diplomacy backed by military strength: Roosevelt believed in using peaceful diplomacy but was ready to use military force when necessary to achieve U.S. interests.

Global dominance: Roosevelt aimed to assert U.S. power in global affairs, particularly in the Western Hemisphere and the Pacific.

The Roosevelt Corollary (1904)

Extension of the Monroe Doctrine: The Monroe Doctrine had previously warned European nations to stay out of the Western Hemisphere. Roosevelt's Corollary added that the U.S. had the right to intervene in Latin American countries to prevent European involvement.

Preventive intervention: It justified U.S. intervention in cases of "chronic wrongdoing" or instability in Latin America, to preserve order and protect American interests.

Real-world applications: This policy led to American interventions in countries like the Dominican Republic, Cuba, and Nicaragua.

Theodore Roosevelt's Foreign Policy

Imperialistic ambitions: Roosevelt oversaw the U.S. becoming a global power, particularly after the Spanish-American War in 1898, acquiring territories like Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.

Panama Canal: Roosevelt supported Panama's independence from Colombia and facilitated the construction of the Panama Canal, a crucial waterway for trade and military mobility.

Naval strength: Roosevelt prioritized building a strong U.S. Navy, symbolized by the Great White Fleet's world tour to showcase American naval power.

Intervention in Latin America and Asia: Roosevelt used military and diplomatic tools to expand U.S. influence in both the Caribbean and the Pacific, ensuring American dominance in the region.

American Intervention in Latin America

Roosevelt Corollary (1904):

Extended Monroe Doctrine: U.S. could intervene in Latin America to prevent European powers from exploiting instability.

Justified intervention in cases of "chronic wrongdoing" to maintain order and protect American interests.

Key Interventions:

Dominican Republic (1905): U.S. took control of finances to prevent European intervention due to unpaid debt.

Cuba (1906-1909): U.S. troops sent to stabilize government after unrest, protect American business interests.

Panama (1903): U.S. supported Panama's independence from Colombia, securing control of the Panama Canal Zone.

Big Stick Diplomacy:

Military power used to enforce American interests in the region.

U.S. became the dominant force in Latin America, using force when necessary to maintain stability.

Impact:

Economic Control: U.S. protected investments in sugar, railroads, and other industries.

Resentment: Latin American countries saw U.S. as imperialist, leading to long-term anti-American sentiment.

U.S. Military Presence: Continued interventions and military presence in countries like Nicaragua, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic.

The Panama Canal

canal was a vital project to connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, boosting trade and military mobility for the U.S.

It would shorten the sea route between the east and west coasts, significantly enhancing economic efficiency and naval power.

The U.S. and Panama's Independence:

Panama was part of Colombia: The U.S. wanted to build the canal but faced resistance from Colombia.

U.S. Support for Panama's Independence (1903): Roosevelt supported Panama's break from Colombia, offering military backing in exchange for control of the Canal Zone.

Construction of the Canal:

Construction began in 1904 under American leadership, after securing the rights from Panama.

U.S. engineers faced significant challenges, including disease (like malaria and yellow fever) and difficult terrain, but eventually succeeded.

Completion and Control:

The canal was completed in 1914, becoming a symbol of U.S. engineering and imperial ambition.

The U.S. maintained control of the Canal Zone until 1999, using it to secure its position as a global maritime power.

Women and Imperialism

U.S. expanded overseas, women's roles in shaping imperialism were complex. Some women's organizations supported imperialism, believing it could uplift other nations. Others, especially in the suffrage movement, opposed it, seeing it as a betrayal of American democratic ideals.

Women played significant roles in debates, with some seeing imperialism as a moral mission to "civilize" the world, while others rejected it as unjust.

The "Civilizing Mission":

Imperialists claimed the U.S. had a duty to "civilize" territories like the Philippines and Puerto Rico. Women were central to this narrative, often depicted as symbols of civilization and morality.

Women were viewed as the ones to bring domestic order and Western values to colonies, through education, social reforms, and domestic roles.

Women in Colonized Territories:

In places like the Philippines and Cuba, women faced harsh realities of war, cultural disruption, and foreign control. While American women saw imperialism as a way to help, colonized women often viewed it as an oppressive force.

Anti-Imperialist Women:

Many women were active in anti-imperialist movements. Figures like Jane Addams and Emma Goldman opposed imperialism, arguing it went against American values and exploited foreign peoples.

Women's activism helped shape both public opinion and policy on imperialism, challenging its moral and political justifications.

"Civilization"

Westward Expansion: The chapter discusses how Americans pushed westward, driven by the belief in Manifest Destiny, the idea that it was America's mission to spread its form of civilization across the continent. This movement led to the displacement of indigenous populations, with the U.S. government often framing this as a way to "civilize" the wilderness.

Native American Displacement: Native American nations were viewed as obstacles to this civilizing mission. Policies like the Indian Removal Act of 1830 forced many tribes off their ancestral lands, culminating in tragic events such as the Trail of Tears. The chapter also explores the efforts of Native American groups to resist and adapt to the changes brought on by European-American settlers and the U.S. government.

Industrialization and Urbanization: The chapter examines the rapid industrialization of the U.S. and its effects on American society, including the rise of factories, railroads, and new technologies. This period saw an increasing emphasis on progress and "civilizing" the frontier by building infrastructure, even as this development led to the exploitation of labor and the environment.

Racial and Social Hierarchies: The concept of civilization was also tied to racial and social hierarchies, with white Americans often positioning themselves as superior to other groups, including Native Americans, African Americans, and immigrants. These ideas influenced policies such as segregation, the institution of slavery, and immigration restrictions.

Sources of Immigration

Immigrant Origins: Most immigrants came from Europe, particularly Ireland, Germany, Italy, and Jewish populations, as well as some from Asia and Latin America.

Push Factors: People left their home countries due to poverty, political instability, religious persecution, and the Irish Great Famine (1845-1852), which caused widespread starvation.

Pull Factors: America attracted immigrants with promises of economic opportunity, land, freedom, and work in growing industries and railroads.

Irish Immigration: The Irish, especially after the famine, made up a large portion of immigrants, settling in cities like New York. They faced discrimination but found work in construction and domestic service.

German Immigration: Germans, fleeing political repression and economic hardship, were more economically stable and often settled in the Midwest, contributing to agricultural development.

Other Immigrants: The chapter highlights the Chinese, who worked on the transcontinental railroad and in mining, facing racial discrimination.

Nativism: Anti-immigrant sentiment, or nativism, rose, with groups like the Know-Nothing Party seeking to restrict immigration, fearing job competition and cultural differences.

Impact on Society: Immigrants fueled industrial growth, providing essential labor for factories, railroads, and agriculture. Their cultural diversity also helped shape the U.S. into a multicultural society.

Anti-Immigration Sentiment

Nativism: As immigration increased, many native-born Americans grew hostile toward immigrants, especially those from Ireland, Germany, and China. Nativists feared that these newcomers would take jobs, dilute American culture, and threaten social stability.

Irish and German Immigrants: Irish immigrants, often Catholic and poor, faced particular discrimination from Protestants who feared they would undermine American values. Germans, despite being more economically stable, were also targeted due to cultural differences.

Chinese Exclusion: Chinese immigrants, who worked primarily in the West on the railroad and in mining, faced intense racial hostility. The 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act was a direct result of these prejudices, effectively halting Chinese immigration.

The Know-Nothing Party: This political party emerged in the 1850s, promoting anti-immigrant and anti-Catholic rhetoric. It was part of a larger movement that sought to limit immigration and restrict political rights for immigrants.

Economic and Cultural Fears: Nativists believed immigrants would lower wages by taking jobs for lower pay, and many feared the cultural impact of the newcomers. This fear often manifested in violence, discrimination, and restrictive laws.

Impact on Immigration Policy: Anti-immigrant sentiment shaped U.S. immigration laws, contributing to the passage of restrictive policies like the Chinese Exclusion Act and later immigration quotas based on national origin.

The Chinese Exclusion Act (1882)

passed at a time when Chinese immigrants, primarily in the West, were blamed for taking jobs and driving down wages. They were often seen as competition by working-class whites, particularly in industries like mining and railroad construction.

Racial and Economic Tensions: As Chinese laborers played a crucial role in building the transcontinental railroad and working in other industries, nativists grew fearful that Chinese workers were taking jobs from white Americans. Economic hardship in the West exacerbated these tensions, and the Chinese were scapegoated for larger economic issues.

Political Pressure: Anti-Chinese sentiment had been growing throughout the 19th century, fueled by racial prejudice and economic fears. Local and state governments, particularly on the West Coast, lobbied for the federal government to address the "Chinese problem."

The Exclusion Act: The Chinese Exclusion Act, signed into law by President Chester A. Arthur in 1882, was the first federal law to restrict immigration based on race or nationality. It prohibited the immigration of Chinese laborers for ten years, later extended indefinitely, and made Chinese immigrants ineligible for U.S. citizenship.

Impact: The Act led to a dramatic decrease in Chinese immigration. It also contributed to the racial segregation and discrimination that Chinese immigrants faced in American society. Chinese communities were further isolated, and many lived in ghettos, facing legal and social barriers.

Legacy: The Chinese Exclusion Act remained in effect until 1943, and its legacy continued to shape U.S. immigration policy. It also set a precedent for future racial and ethnic exclusions in immigration laws.

Catholicism and American culture

Immigration and Catholicism: Many of the immigrants arriving in the U.S. during this period, particularly the Irish and Germans, were Catholic. This religious affiliation set them apart from the predominantly Protestant American society and contributed to their marginalization.

Nativism and Anti-Catholicism: The influx of Catholic immigrants sparked significant nativist and anti-Catholic sentiment. Protestants, fearing that Catholics would undermine American values and loyalty, viewed Catholicism as foreign and incompatible with American ideals of liberty and democracy. This led to discrimination violence and the rise of anti-Catholic organizations like the Know-Nothing Party.

The Rise of Catholic Institutions: In response to discrimination, Catholic communities began to build their own institutions, including churches, schools and charities. Catholic immigrants created tight-knit communities often centered around their local parish where they could practice their faith and support each other.

Catholicism and Politics: Catholics also became an important political force. In cities like New York political machines such as Tammany Hall relied on the support of immigrant communities, including Catholics, to gain power. Over time, Catholicism became a more integrated part of American political life.

Cultural Contributions: Despite facing prejudice, Catholics made significant contributions to American culture. Catholic schools helped shape the educational landscape and Catholic religious leaders played important roles in addressing social issues, such as poverty and labor rights

The Role of the Vatican: The chapter also discusses the tension between American Catholics and the Vatican. Many American Catholics sought to reconcile their faith with American values, leading to debates over the influence of the Pope in US politics

Rev. Josiah Strong

was a prominent Protestant clergyman and social reformer in the late 19th century. He was a key proponent of Social Gospel, which linked Christianity with social justice and the improvement of society.

"Our Country" (1885): Strong's most famous work, Our Country: Its Possible Future and Its Present Crisis, argued that the United States was destined to spread its influence across the globe and "civilize" other nations, particularly those in the Americas and the Pacific. He believed that the U.S. was a divinely chosen nation.

Social Darwinism and Racial Superiority: Strong's ideas were heavily influenced by Social Darwinism, which applied the concept of natural selection to societies and nations. He argued that Anglo-Saxon Protestants were the "superior" race and had a duty to spread their culture, religion, and values to "lesser" nations and immigrant populations, particularly those of non-European descent.

Influence on Imperialism: Strong's ideas helped justify American expansionism and imperialism. He advocated for the spread of American civilization through both missionary work and military intervention, believing that the U.S. had a moral responsibility to bring Christianity and "civilization" to other parts of the world.

Attitudes Toward Immigrants: Strong also expressed concern about the impact of immigrants on American society. While he saw the assimilation of some European immigrants as possible, he was openly hostile toward non-European immigrants, particularly Chinese and Native Americans. His views reflected the racial prejudices and fears of the time.

Alfred Thayer Mahan

was a U.S. naval officer and historian whose writings significantly influenced American foreign policy and military strategy. His most famous work, The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660-1783 (1890), argued that national greatness and power were closely tied to naval strength.

Sea Power and Imperialism: Mahan's theory emphasized the importance of a strong navy for controlling global trade routes and protecting national interests. He argued that the U.S. needed to expand its naval forces and establish naval bases around the world to maintain and increase its global influence.

Influence on U.S. Policy: Mahan's ideas were highly influential in the development of American imperialism. His arguments helped justify the U.S. expansion into territories like Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, as the nation sought to extend its naval and economic power.

Naval Expansion: Mahan's work directly influenced the U.S. government's decision to modernize its navy. He pushed for the construction of larger, more powerful battleships and the establishment of a network of naval bases, particularly in the Caribbean and Pacific, to project U.S. power and protect international trade routes.

Global Influence: Mahan's ideas also resonated internationally and contributed to the broader global trend of naval arms races and imperial expansion. His emphasis on controlling the seas aligned with the imperial ambitions of other world powers, such as Great Britain and Germany.

Queen Liluokalani

became the queen of Hawaii in 1891, after the death of her brother, King Kalākaua. She was a strong advocate for the preservation of Hawaiian sovereignty and the rights of native Hawaiians in the face of increasing foreign influence, particularly from the United States.

Hawaiian Sovereignty and the U.S. Influence: During Liliʻuokalani's reign, American settlers, many of them involved in the sugar industry, had gained significant political and economic influence in Hawaii. The U.S. had strategic and economic interests in the islands, especially as a key location for military bases and trade routes in the Pacific.

The Overthrow of the Monarchy: In 1893, a group of American businessmen, backed by U.S. military forces, staged a coup against Queen Liliʻuokalani. They sought to overthrow her government and establish a republic that would eventually lead to Hawaii's annexation by the United States. The Queen attempted to resist but was forced to abdicate after U.S. troops landed in Honolulu to support the coup.

Aftermath and Annexation: Following her overthrow, Liliʻuokalani was placed under house arrest, and the Hawaiian Kingdom was effectively dismantled. The U.S. government, despite initial opposition, annexed Hawaii in 1898, making it a U.S. territory. Queen Liliʻuokalani was ultimately forced to accept the situation, though she later fought for justice for her people.

Jingoism

is a form of extreme patriotism that advocates for war and expansionist policies to assert national power.

Imperialism and Jingoism: In the late 19th century, jingoism fueled U.S. imperialism. It justified actions like the annexation of Hawaii, the Spanish-American War, and the acquisition of the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam.

Spanish-American War: Public support for the war with Spain was stirred by jingoistic media, especially "yellow journalism," which sensationalized Spain's actions in Cuba, portraying them as barbaric and justifying military intervention.

Impact on U.S. Foreign Policy: Jingoism promoted the idea that the U.S. had a duty to spread its power and "civilization" globally, resulting in territorial acquisitions and the enforcement of American influence abroad.

Criticism: Jingoism faced criticism from anti-imperialists who argued it contradicted democratic ideals and led to unnecessary wars and the subjugation of other nations, exemplified by the opposition to the Philippines' annexation.

De Lome Letter

a private letter written by the Spanish Ambassador to the United States, Enrique Dupuy de Lôme, to a friend in Cuba. The letter was intercepted and published by the New York Journal in February 1898.

Contents of the Letter: In the letter, de Lôme criticized U.S. President William McKinley, calling him weak and "a bidder for the admiration of the crowd." He also referred to the American government's policies as ineffective. The letter contained derogatory remarks about the U.S. leadership and its handling of the situation in Cuba.

Impact on American Public Opinion: The publication of the letter outraged the American public, especially since it came at a time of rising anti-Spanish sentiment due to Spain's oppressive rule over Cuba. The letter played into the broader narrative of Spanish antagonism toward the U.S. and further increased calls for intervention in Cuba.

Political Consequences: The scandal led to the resignation of de Lôme and further damaged Spanish-American relations. It contributed to the growing tide of jingoism in the U.S., which was already stirred up by sensationalist newspapers and the ongoing Cuban struggle for independence.

Connection to the Spanish-American War: The De Lôme Letter, along with the explosion of the USS Maine in Havana harbor just weeks later, helped push the U.S. closer to war with Spain, culminating in the Spanish-American War.

Teller Amendment

introduced by Senator Henry M. Teller of Colorado in April 1898 as part of the U.S. declaration of war against Spain. It was a response to fears that the U.S. might annex Cuba after defeating Spain.

Content of the Amendment: The Teller Amendment stated that the United States would not annex Cuba following the Spanish-American War. It declared that the U.S. would support Cuba's independence and that the Cuban people would be free to determine their own future without U.S. interference in their sovereignty.

Significance: The amendment was important because it reassured anti-imperialist factions within the U.S. who feared that the U.S. would use the war as an opportunity to extend its territorial holdings. It set a precedent for U.S. support for Cuban independence, at least publicly, during the war.

Impact on the War and Aftermath: While the Teller Amendment committed the U.S. not to annex Cuba, the U.S. did establish significant influence over the island after the war, which would later be solidified with the Platt Amendment in 1901. This allowed the U.S. to intervene in Cuban affairs and maintain a military presence, despite the initial promise of Cuban sovereignty.

Platt Amendment

After the U.S. defeated Spain in 1898 and Cuba gained its independence, there was concern about the stability of the new Cuban government and the potential for European intervention. The U.S. wanted to maintain influence in Cuba without directly annexing it.

Content of the Amendment: The Platt Amendment, passed in 1901, was a rider to the Army Appropriations Act. It outlined several conditions that Cuba had to accept as a condition for U.S. withdrawal from the island:

Cuban sovereignty was acknowledged, but the U.S. retained the right to intervene in Cuban affairs to preserve order and stability.

The U.S. was granted the right to maintain a naval base at Guantanamo Bay.

Cuba was prohibited from entering into treaties with other nations that would limit its independence or allow foreign powers to establish military bases on the island.

Cuba was required to maintain a debt policy that would prevent it from accumulating significant debt with foreign nations.

Significance: The Platt Amendment significantly limited Cuba's autonomy and ensured that U.S. interests were protected. It effectively made Cuba a U.S. protectorate, where U.S. influence was dominant despite Cuba's formal independence.

Impact: The Platt Amendment was a point of contention for many Cubans, as it represented U.S. control over Cuban affairs. It remained in place until 1934, when it was repealed as part of a broader agreement between the U.S. and Cuba.

Boxer Rebellion

(1899-1901) is an important anti-imperialist uprising in China.

Background: The Boxers, a Chinese nationalist group, opposed foreign influence, especially Christianity and the control by European powers and Japan in China. They aimed to expel foreign nationals and Chinese Christians.

The Uprising: The Boxers launched attacks on foreigners and Chinese Christians, culminating in a siege of Beijing in 1900. The Qing Dynasty initially supported the Boxers but lost control as the violence escalated.

International Intervention: In response, an eight-nation alliance (Japan, Russia, Britain, France, U.S., Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary) sent troops to protect foreign nationals and suppress the uprising. They defeated the Boxers and lifted the siege in August 1900.

U.S. Role: The U.S. sent troops to protect American citizens and maintain access to trade. The U.S. also reinforced the Open Door Policy, which sought to prevent any single foreign power from dominating China.

Aftermath: The Boxer Protocol (1901) forced China to pay indemnities to the foreign powers. The rebellion weakened the Qing Dynasty, furthering foreign influence in China, and solidified the U.S.'s strategic and economic presence in East Asia.

Open Door Policy

introduced in 1899 by U.S. Secretary of State John Hay in response to increasing foreign influence in China, especially by European powers and Japan. The U.S. sought to ensure equal trading rights for all nations in China and prevent any one country from monopolizing Chinese trade.

Policy Goals: The primary goal was to maintain China's territorial integrity and keep it open to international trade without being carved into spheres of influence by European powers or Japan. The U.S. feared that exclusion from Chinese markets would harm its economic interests.

The Policy's Implementation: In 1899, Hay sent a series of diplomatic notes to the major foreign powers in China, urging them to respect equal trading rights and to refrain from establishing exclusive control over Chinese regions. Though these notes were not formal treaties, they were accepted by the involved nations, which agreed to keep China open to trade for all countries.

Significance: The Open Door Policy reflected the U.S.'s growing interest in becoming a global economic power and its desire to maintain a foothold in Asia without engaging in direct territorial colonization. It also aimed to counterbalance the growing imperial influence of European powers and Japan in China.

Legacy: The policy remained a cornerstone of U.S. foreign policy in Asia until the early 20th century, although its effectiveness was often undermined by other powers' actions. It laid the groundwork for continued U.S. involvement in China, despite not directly influencing China's internal politics or sovereignty.

Dollar Diplomacy

strategy under President William Howard Taft (1909-1913) that aimed to use U.S. economic power to extend American influence abroad, particularly in Latin America and East Asia.

Background: Dollar Diplomacy was a response to the more aggressive, military-based imperialism seen during Theodore Roosevelt's presidency. Instead of relying on military intervention, Taft sought to promote U.S. interests through economic investments and loans to foreign countries, especially in Central America and the Caribbean.

Goals of Dollar Diplomacy: The main goals were to stabilize regions in the Western Hemisphere, protect U.S. economic interests, and prevent European powers from interfering in the Americas. By using American businesses and banks to invest in foreign countries, the U.S. could influence their governments while avoiding direct military confrontation.

Implementation: The U.S. government encouraged American banks and corporations to invest in infrastructure projects, such as railroads and mines, in countries like Nicaragua, Honduras, and the Dominican Republic. In exchange, these countries would rely on U.S. financial and political support, creating a system where U.S. interests were prioritized.

Impact: While Dollar Diplomacy succeeded in expanding U.S. economic influence, it often resulted in the exploitation of local economies, and the intervention of U.S. businesses sometimes led to instability. For example, in Nicaragua, U.S. investments led to political unrest, which the U.S. government then intervened to control.