Key Concepts in Psychology: Learning and Memory

Perceptual Adaptation

Adjusting visual perception to altered environments.

Consciousness

Awareness of self and surroundings.

Selective Attention

Focusing on important stimuli, ignoring others.

Inattentional Blindness

Failure to notice unexpected stimuli.

Change Blindness

Unawareness of changes in visual scenes.

Circadian Rhythm

24-hour biological cycle regulating sleep-wake patterns.

REM Sleep

Active brain state during sleep, reinforces memories.

Sleep Cycle

90-minute progression through sleep stages.

Sleep Deprivation

Lack of sleep causing serious health issues.

Insomnia

Inability to fall asleep regularly.

Narcolepsy

Uncontrollable episodes of falling asleep.

Sleep Apnea

Breathing interruptions during sleep.

Hypersomnia

Excessive sleepiness despite adequate sleep.

Night Terrors

Intense fear episodes during sleep.

Sleepwalking

Walking during sleep without awareness.

Sleep Talking

Talking during sleep, often incoherent.

Manifest Content

Surface storyline of a dream.

Latent Content

Underlying meaning of a dream.

Hypnosis

Induced state for suggestive therapeutic effects.

Posthypnotic Amnesia

Memory loss induced by hypnosis.

Psychoactive Drug

Substance altering consciousness and perception.

Tolerance

Increased dosage needed for same drug effect.

Psychological Dependence

Craving for a drug without physical symptoms.

Physical Dependence

Withdrawal symptoms when drug use stops.

Depressants

Substances that slow down neural activity.

Stimulants

Substances that increase neural activity and energy.

Hallucinogens

Substances causing sensory distortions and hallucinations.

Binge Drinking

Consuming excessive alcohol in a short time.

Working Memory

Short-term memory holding 5-7 bits for 20 seconds.

Long Term Memory

Unlimited storage capacity for information.

Effortful Processing

Working hard to encode information into memory.

Rehearsal

Repeatedly practicing information to enhance retention.

Spacing Effect

Better retention through distributed practice over time.

Next in Line Effect

Poor recall of the person before you in line.

Serial Position Effect

Better recall of first and last items in a list.

Encoding

Transforming information into a form suitable for storage.

Semantic Encoding

Encoding based on the meaning of information.

Acoustic Encoding

Encoding based on the sound of information.

Visual Encoding

Encoding based on the appearance of information.

Mnemonic

Memory aids that use imagery for better recall.

Chunking

Grouping information into manageable units for easier recall.

Hierarchies

Organizing information into categories and concepts.

Iconic Memory

Sensory memory for visual stimuli.

Echoic Memory

Sensory memory for auditory stimuli.

Haptic Memory

Sensory memory for tactile stimuli.

Working Memory

Short-term memory lasting about 30 seconds.

Long Term Memory

Unlimited capacity for storing information over time.

Long Term Potentiation

Strengthening of synaptic connections through learning.

Flashbulb Memories

Vivid memories triggered by emotional events.

Explicit Memory

Memory for facts and experiences, processed in hippocampus.

Implicit Memory

Procedural memory processed in the cerebellum.

Hippocampus

Brain region crucial for forming explicit memories.

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new memories after an event.

Recall

Retrieving information from memory without cues.

Recognition

Identifying previously learned information from options.

Relearning

Learning information faster than the first time.

Retrieval Cues

Associations that help access stored memories.

Priming

Exposure to one stimulus influences response to another.

Context Effects

Better memory recall in original learning context.

Deja Vu

Feeling of familiarity with a current experience.

Mood Congruent Memory

Recall of memories consistent with current mood.

State Dependent Memories

Recall influenced by the state during encoding.

Encoding Failure

Inability to remember due to poor encoding.

Storage Decay

Gradual loss of memory over time.

Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve

Rapid forgetting initially, then stabilizes over time.

Retrieval Failure

Inability to access stored information, 'tip of tongue'.

Proactive Interference

Old memories hinder new memory formation.

Retroactive Interference

New information disrupts recall of old memories.

Motivated Forgetting

Forgetting due to desire to avoid memories.

Repression

Defense mechanism to unconsciously block painful memories.

Source Amnesia

Inability to recall the origin of a memory.

Misinformation Effect

Altered memories due to misleading information.

Behaviorism

Theory emphasizing environment's role in behavior.

Learning

Change in behavior due to experience or conditioning.

Classical Conditioning

Learning through association of stimuli.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

Stimulus that naturally triggers a reflex.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

Natural reflex response to an unconditioned stimulus.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

Stimulus that initially does not trigger a response.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Previously neutral stimulus that triggers a response.

Conditioned Response (CR)

Learned response to a conditioned stimulus.

UCS

Unconditioned Stimulus, naturally triggers a response.

UCR

Unconditioned Response, automatic reaction to UCS.

NS

Neutral Stimulus, initially does not trigger response.

CS

Conditioned Stimulus, learned to trigger response.

CR

Conditioned Response, learned reaction to CS.

Ivan Pavlov

Russian physiologist known for classical conditioning.

Salivation Reflex

Automatic salivation response to food stimulus.

Little Albert Experiment

Study demonstrating fear conditioning in infants.

Stimulus Generalization

Similar stimuli evoke the conditioned response.

Discrimination

Ability to differentiate between similar stimuli.

Extinction

Diminishing of conditioned response over time.

Spontaneous Recovery

Reappearance of extinguished response after time.

Operant Conditioning

Learning through consequences of behavior.

Thorndike's Law of Effect

Behaviors followed by pleasant outcomes are repeated.

Operant Behavior

Complex behavior influenced by choices, not reflexes.

Reinforcer

Stimulus that increases likelihood of behavior.

Shaping

Gradually guiding behavior through successive approximations.

Primary Reinforcer

Satisfies biological needs, e.g., food, warmth.

Secondary Reinforcer

Conditioned stimulus associated with primary reinforcers.

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcement provided after every occurrence of behavior.