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Effects of loneliness on health

Loneliness can lead to poorer reported health, increased risk of heart attacks, poor sleep, and poor immune functioning

Ovulatory shift

womens mate preferences shift to favor men with good genes when they are nearer to ovulation

mental effects of exclusion

exclusion can increase psychological pain similar to physical injury, affecting emotional well-being

importance of social bonds

humans have a fundamental need to belong and make social connectionsa

attitudes toward attractiveness across cultures

Cultural context shapes attitudes, preferences, and standards of physical and personality-based attractiveness. What one culture views as beautiful or desirable can differ dramatically from another, and these standards shift based on cultural values, norms, media, and environmental factors.

Cognitive reactions to social exclusion

Socially excluded individuals tend to be hypersensitive to social interactions.

Protection effects

-financial well-being

-helps people cope with bad things

-reduces risky behavior

in 4 years following heart attack. -% of patients in happy relationships died. _% of patients in unhappy relationships died

30%, 55%

Familiarity in relationships

Repeated exposure to another person generally increases liking & comfort with them.

Why is reciprocity so important?

the tendency for people to like others more when they believe those others like them in return

we like others who like us because of how high the fear of rejection is.

YOU ARE MOST APPEALING TO SOMEONE WHO SHOWS INTERESTS IN YOU & NO ONE ELSE

attractive for men

prominent eyebrow ridges, broad jaw

women see bearded men as more masculine but not more attractive

_ women found symmetrical men sexier

ovulating

fertility

On ovulation where youre body is liekly to make a baby

Women prefer dominant, masucline, deeper voice, musclar men when ovulating

environmental security hypothesis

During hard times (found in study of playmates) ; playmates were older. They had narrow hips, were taller, heavier. When conditions are threatening or uncertain, people prefer faces with more mature faces

Research questions can broadly aim to describe events as they occur or establish _ connections between them.

causal

_ designs study patterns where a change in one event is accompanied by a change in another

correlational

How does correlation differ from causation?

Correlation indicates that 2 events change together but doesnt explain why?

Experimental designs provide insight into causes and effects by manipulating variables and _ assigning participants.

randomly

In relationship research, _ observations involve studying ongoing behavior in real time without interference.

direct

_ involves collecting short, real-time observation samples randomly across days to study behavior.

Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA)

How do physiological measures contribute to relationship research?

They capture involuntary bodily reactions, providing objective insights into emotional states.

Ethical considerations in relationship research include informed consent, voluntary participation, confidentiality, and access to _/resources.

Counseling

Key dimensions in attachment style questionnaires are anxiety about abandonment and _ of intimacy.

avoidance

How does perceived support compare to actual support?

Perceived support often matters more than actual support for individuals' well-being.

compared to romantic relationships, friendships are generally less passionate, less sexual, and less _

exclusive

emotional (talking to), physical (hug), advice (study tips), and material (new purse) are the 4 main types of _ provided by friends

social support

The _ states that repeated contact with someone typically increases liking for them.

mere exposure effect

according to the _, individuals tend to pair with others of similar overall mate value

matching hypothesis

for intimacy and overall satisfaction, _ is considered critical within relationships

trust

low _ can be a contributing factor to feelings of loneliness and emotional distress

self-esteem

apparent agreement 

A situation in which two people seem to agree on something, but in reality, they do not fully share the same understanding, intention, or perspective.

causal connection

A situation in which one partner’s behavior directly causes a change in the other partner’s feelings, thoughts, or behaviors.
Example: When Partner A consistently shows affection, Partner B feels more secure and loving in response

Why is social cognition important in relationships?

Judgments of partners’ behaviors shape feelings and influence actions. Multiple interpretations are possible (forgiving vs blaming), and misjudgments can damage relationships even if we feel confident we’re right.

what is the primacy effect?

First information received carries more weight than later info, guiding how we interpret subsequent details.

snap judgments?

Automatic impressions made before conscious thought, based on cues like attractiveness, age, gender, race, style, or stereotypes.

How does facial width-to-height ratio (fWHR) influence perception?

• High fWHR (wide face) → more prejudiced, higher sex drive, casual sex appeal.

  • Low fWHR (narrow face) → judged more trustworthy, preferred for long-term mates.ke

key study: Carney et al

People can judge extraversion, conscientiousness, and intelligence in just 5 seconds.

Key study: Darley & gross - “hannah study”

Social class preconceptions changed interpretation of identical test performance.

benefits of idealization

increases satisfaction, encourages commitment, improves partner self-esteem

define self-serving bias

taking credit for successes & blaming failures on external factors

what is transference?

old feelings from past relationships infkuence reactions to new partners unconsciously 

Define impression management and its strategies

Controlling what others perceive of us. Strategies:

1. Ingratiation → seek approval or liking

   1. flattery, agreeableness, doing favours. common in early dating or professional networking

2. Self-promotion → highlight skills.

   1. sharing accomplishments, taking credit. common in job interviews or leadership roles.

3. Intimidation → display power.

   1. showing dominance, confidence or threats. common in competitive or hierarchal settings

4. Supplication → appear weak to gain help.

   1. receive care, assistance, or leniency. common when seeking support & forgiveness

what is interdependence theory

Partners rely on each other for valuable rewards such as affection, support, and acceptance

A theory that explains relationships in terms of mutual dependence and influence. Key points:

• Partners’ outcomes are linked; your satisfaction depends on both your own and your partner’s behaviour.

• Commitment is shaped by:

  1. Satisfaction – How happy you are with rewards vs. costs.

  2. Alternatives – Availability of other partners or life options.

  3. Investments – Time, effort, shared experiences, resources.

• Focuses on long-term dynamics rather than just immediate rewards.

  • Highlights that mutual dependence predicts behaviours like accommodation, sacrifice, and derogation of alternatives.

Define comparison level for alternatives (CLalt)

lowest level of outcome tolerated based on perceived alternatives (other partners, being single)d

Dependence (commitment) - CLalt formula for dependence

outxomes (results-costs) - CLalt

individual differences in motivation - high avoidance motive effects?

• A person is motivated to avoid negative outcomes, like conflict, rejection, or disapproval, rather than pursue positive rewards.

• Effects in relationships:

  • Sensitive to negatives: They notice criticism, slights, or potential problems more easily than positives.

    • Sacrifices feel burdensome: Doing things for their partner or the relationship may feel like a heavy obligation rather than a willing, rewarding choice.

why are early stage relationships exciting?

rapid seed-expansion: new skills, experiences, shared adventures and emotional highs contribute to excitement. co

components of commitment

expectation, long-term view, psychological attachment 

investment model

commitment = satisfaction + investments - quality of alternatives t

types of commitment

Personal:

Motivation: You want to stay in the relationship.

• Driven by satisfaction, love, and emotional attachment.

• Example: “I enjoy being with my partner and want to build a future together.”

Constraint: Motivation: You feel forced to stay.

• Driven by costs of leaving: children, finances, social pressure, or fear of loneliness.

• Example: “I don’t really enjoy my marriage, but leaving would be too complicated or painful.”

• Often associated with unhappy dependence, where the relationship continues even if it’s not fulfilling.

moral: Motivation: You feel a sense of duty or obligation.

• Driven by values, promises, ethical beliefs, or social/religious norms.

• Example: “I promised to stick with my partner through thick and thin, and it would be wrong to break that vow.”

Formula for equity

(your outcomes/your contributions) = (partners outcomes/partners contributions)mod

Modern household division findings?

men sharing chores → happier marriage + beter sex lives

what is cohabitation

the state of living together and having a sexual reltionship w/o being married 

Personality triats (big 5) affecting relationship

1. Open-mindedness → curiosity/imagination

2. Extraversion → sociable, assertive

3. Conscientiousness → reliable, responsible

4. Agreeableness → compassionate, cooperative

5. Negative Emotionality → worry, anxiety, anger (most impactful on relationship happiness)

• Positive traits predict long-lasting relationships; negative emotionality predicts conflict

androgynous meaning 

one who has both masculine and feminine characteristics (ex; man wearing a skirt)

interpersonal distance zones

• Intimate: 0–1.5 ft (loving/hostile)

• Personal: 1.5–4 ft (friends)

• Social: 4–12 ft (formal/business)

  • Public: 12+ ft (lectures)
    Factors: culture, temperature, gender, relationship quality.

chemosignals / smell in communication

Emotions release detectable chemicals (fear, happiness). Affect observers’ emotions and social/sexual interactions; anosmia (lack of smell) linked to fewer sexual relationships.

paralanguage definition

Nonverbal aspects of voice: pitch, tone, rhythm, loudness. Conveys emotion better than facial expressions; signals mate value, attraction, and fertility cues.

What is cognitive psyhology

percption, judgmentm attention, memory, learning, & problem solving

social psychology

the self, the situation, & the social environment 

subjective construal

the interpretation of experiences shaped by personal beliefs and context.

• Whats in the world (stimuli)

• Whats in our mind (construal)

study: gave people a script of a first dtae, half were asked to point out flirting and other half point out deception. they were then given a photo and those who were aked to look for flirting saw a face, those who looked for deception saw the world “liar”

overattribution of responsibility

your own contributions are more “available” to memory.

differential retrieval: how much did i contribute

informational disparities: not there/cant remember

Naive realism

the belief that we see the world objectively (not influenced by personal feelings) and that others who disagree are uninforme or irrational 

biased thinking in relationships

• People are motivated to see themselves, their partners, and their relationship in a positive light

• This leads us to

  • See our relationships as better than average

  • Maintain unrealistically optimistic predictions about our relationships

  • See our partners as ideal

  • Assume more similarity between self & partner than is warranted

    • Assume we have more control over our relationships than we really do

what determines CLalt 

• Self views

  • Low self esteem: doubt that others will find them desirabl, lower CL.alt

    • They have srious doubts about own self worth which leads them to question if others would find them desirable

  • High self esteem, more confident in others views of them, higher CL.alt

    • More confident others will like them so they see more potential partners

What behaviors and beliefs are related to staying committed in a relationship?

Commitment is linked to derogation of alternatives, willingness to sacrifice, accommodative behavior, cognitive interdependence, positive illusions about the partner, and fidelity.

what is derogation of alternatives

Highly committed people downplay the attractiveness of potential alternative partners, especially those who might threaten their current relationship.

why do committed people derogate alternatives 

Due to high comparison levels, social norms, and cognitive dissonance; they protect their relationship by seeing threats as less attractive.

One important feature of Snyder, Tanke, & Berscheid’s (1977) study
on self-fulfilling prophecies of physical attractiveness – sometimes
referred to colloquially as the “telephone study” - was that:

The male participants thought they knew what the female target looked like but could not see her during the conversation

What are the three components of Sternberg’s Triangular theory of love?

• Intimacy: emotional closeness, warmth, sharing

• Passion: sexual attraction, desire, arousal (unstable)

• Commitment: short- and long-term conscious decisions

what are 2 main types of love identified by berscheird & Hatfield?

• Romantic/passionate love: “Being in love,” intense, obsessive, sexual, fleeting

• Companionate love: “Loving,” slow onset, intimate, committed, enduring, friendship-based

How is companionate love measured?

Rubin’s Love Scale, e.g., confiding in partner, willingness to do anything for them.

who developed attachment theory?

John Bwlbys - considered the father of attachment theory

what was bowlbys main focus

Understanding how early attachment experiences affect later emotional development, relationships, and behavior

what are bowlbys 4 phases of attachment development?

• Pre-attachment (0–6 weeks) — baby signals but no specific attachment.

• Attachment-in-the-making (6 weeks–6/8 months) — preference for familiar people.

• Clear-cut attachment (6/8 months–18 months) — separation anxiety emerges.

• Formation of reciprocal relationships (18+ months) — understanding the caregiver’s goals and schedules.

what is the internal working model

A mental representation of self & others formed through early attachment experiences, influences future relationships

What did Bowlby call the bond between infant & caregiver?

a secure base from which the child explores the world who

who created the “strange situation” experiment

mary ainsworth

what was ainsworth testing in the strange situation

infant attachment patterns & responses to caregiver separation & reunion

what defines disorganized attachment 

Child shows contradictory or confused behavior, may freeze, hide, or approach and avoid the caregiver

what did Hazan & Shavers study find?

The study: conducted a survey using a “Love Quiz” published in a newspaper, where over 600 adults described their romantic relationships and chose statements that best reflected their feelings about love and closeness. The researchers then analyzed the responses to identify patterns corresponding to the three main attachment styles: secure, avoidant, and anxious.

what it found: Adult romantic love mirrors infant attachment - the same attachment styles appear in romantic relationships

what are bowlbys 3 separation phases?

The three phases of separation outlined by Bowlby are protest, despair, and detachment. These phases describe the emotional responses of children when separated from their primary caregivers.wh

what is the continuity hypothesis?

early attachment patterns predict later relationship behaviors 

what is the safe haven function of attachment?

turning to an attachment figure for comfrot in times of distresswha

what is the secure base function of attachment?

feeling safe enough to explore the environment knowing support is available to return to an attachment figure when needed.

what is the goal corrected partnership

child recognizes caregivers needs and adjusts behavior - marks more mature attachment 

what attachment pattern often leads to jealousy or controlling behaviours?

anxious-preoccupied attachment

Historical view of marriage

Marriage was primarily an economic, political, or family arrangement

ancient greece view of love

love was seen as madness; admired platonic love

middle ages perspective on love 

Courtly love was idealized, nonsexual, and often adulterous 

Helen Fishers 3 systems of love

lust, attraction, and attachment, driven by different hormones

two-factor theory of love

love is a combination of physiological arousal and labeling it as love

companionate love

combination of intimacy and commitment characterized by deep friendship and mutual respect

oxytocin role in love

oxytocin promotes bonding, calmness, and is released during childbirth, breastfeeding and orgasmc

compassionate love 

combines intimacy and caring, defined by empathy and selflessness

impact of routine on relationshiips

routine can reduce passion but increase intimacy and commitment over time

Hedonic adaptation

Over time, rising CL makes satisfaction harder to maintain

Comparison level (CL)

your satisfaction, standard of what you deserve in a relationship

Self-fulfilling prophecy

an expectation, either positive or negative, about people or events that may affect a person's behavior, causing those expectations to be fulfilled. 

Naive realism

the tendency to believe our perception of the world reflects it exactly as it is, unbiased and unfiltered