PSY 347 exam 1

Defintions of learning

1. process by which behavioral changes arise from organism’s experience interacting with the world

2. process whereby organism comes to anticipate a future event based on info/stimuli that it received from environment

3. to gain knowledge/comprehension/mastery through experience/study

Processes involved in learning

1. perception

2. memory

3. categorization

Conditioning

procedures that can modify behavior (aka process of learning)

Classical conditioning

certain inborn involuntary behaviors come sot be produced in new situations

• underlies many emotional responses & contributes to development of dislikes

Operant/instrumental conditioning

strengthning/weakening of behavior as result of consequences

Aristotle (nature vs nurture)

• argued knowledge not inborn but acquired through experience

• early example of empiricist

Empiricism

assumes that a person’s characteristics are mostly learned

Aristotle’s laws of association

1. law of similarity

2. law of contrast

3. law of contiguity

4. law of frequency

Law of similarity

similar events are readily associated

Law of contrast

opposite events are readily associated

Law of contiguity

events in close proximity in time/space are readily associated

Law of frequency

the more frequently 2 items occur together, the stronger the association

Descartes (nature vs nurture)

• disputed notion that human behavior was governed entirely by free will

• dualistic model of human nature: body behaviors are involuntary, mind behaviors are voluntary

• only humans posses self-directing mind

• suggested reflexive behaviors were mechanistic & could be studied

British Empiricists/Associationists

• almost all knowledge is function of experience

• conscious mind composed of finite set of basic elements

• gathered from experience, combined through prinicples of association into complex sensations & thought patterns

Factors for formation of associations

• intensity

• similarity

• recency

• frequency

Structuralism

• determine structure of mind by identifying basic elements of which it is composed

• method of introspection: subject attempts to describe conscious thoughts, emotions, & sensory experiences

Functionalism

• mind evolved to help us adapt to world around us

• partially derived from Darwin

• what we learn from animals may be relevant for humans

• strong proponent of associationism

Stimulus

sensory event that provides info about outside world

• any event that can potentially influence behavior

Learning curve

graph showing learning performance (DV) as function of training time (IV)

Response

behavioral consequence of perception of stimulus

• a particular instance of a behavior

Extinction

process of reducing a learned response to stimulus by ceasing to pair that stimulus with reward/punishment

Law of effect

probability of particular behavioral response inceased/decreased depending on consequences that followed

Behaviorism

natural science approach to psychology that emphasizes study of environmental influences on observable behavior

1. learning involves simple associations between stimuli/between responses & stimuli

2. complex behavior can be understood as combo of simple elements

3. learning is largely determined by external, environmental influences

4. principles of learning transcend species & situational boundaries

Behaviorism

natural science approach to psychology that emphasizes study of environmental influences on observable behavior

1. learning involves simple associations between stimuli/between responses & stimuli

2. complex behavior can be understood as combo of simple elements

3. learning is largely determined by external, environmental influences

4. principles of learning transcend species & situational boundaries

Morgan’s Canon

whenever possible, interpret an animal’s behavior in terms of lower, more primitive processes rather than higher, more mentalistic processes

Watson’s methodological behaviorism

• only study behaviors that can be directly observed

• all behavior is reflexive

• learning involves development of simple connection between stimulus & response

• complex behavior is long set os stimulus-response chains

Neobehaviorism

brand of behaviorism that utilizes intervening variables (hypothesized physiological processes) to help explain behavior

• still rejected mentalism & subjective experiences

• assumes that learning consists of establishment of connections between specific stimuli & specific responses

Tolman’s cognitive behaviorism

• felt that behavior should be analysed on a broader level

• similar to Gestalt approach to perception

• intervening variables more mentalistic

• cognitive processes explain behavior

Cognitive map

mental representation of spatial surroundings

Latent learning

learning occurs despite absence of any observable demonstration of learning & only becomes apparent under a differing set of conditions

Bandura’s social learning theory

cognitive-behavioral approach strongly emphasizing importance of observational learning & cognitive varaibles in explaining human behavior

• internal events/expectations have primary role in learning process

• doesn’t dismiss value of introspectively observed subjective experience in explaining behavior

Skinner’s radical behaviorism

1. emphasized influence of environment on overt behavior

2. rejects use of internal events to explain behavior

3. views thoughts & feelings as behaviors that need to be explained

once we understand how it affects us, can change environment so it exerts more beneficial influence on our behavior

Reciprocal determinism

internal events don’t just mediate between environment & behavior

Countercontrol

deliberate manipulation of environmental events to alter their impact on behavior

Skinner on internal events

didn’t want to consider them as explanations for behavior

1. no direct access, must rely on verbal reports

2. also difficult to determine relationship of thoughts & feelings to behavior

Skinner on genetics

didn’t want to place too much emphasis on genetics

• genetic factors are unmodifiable

• would assume that behaviors with genetic bases would be unmodifiable

Natural selection

members of species that inherit certain adaptive characteristics are more likely to survive & propagate & pass characteristics to offspring

Criteria for evolution

species evolve when possess a trait that meets 3 conditions

• inheritable

• variable

• relevant to survival

Formal Models & Universal Laws

philosophers & psychologists have borrowed methods & metaphors from other scientific fiedls to enhance their understanding

Variables

characteristics of person/place/thing that can change over time/vary from situation to another

IV

aspects of experiments that systematically vary across conditions

DV

aspects of experiment that are allowed to vary freely to see if they’re affected by changes in IV

Functional relationships

between changes in IV & changes in DV

Overt behaviors

publicly observed

Covert behaviors

behaviors that can be perceived only by person performing the behavior

• private behaviors/events

• dreaming, thinking, visualising, feeling

• can usually be made overt

Appetitive stimuli

events that organisms seek out

Aversive stimuli

events that organisms avoid

Establishing operation

procedure affecting appetitiveness/aversiveness of stimulus

Deprivation

establishing operation that increases appetitiveness of event

• prolonged absence of event

Satiation

establishing operation that decreases appetitveness of event

• prolonged exposure to event

Contiguity

closeness/nearness

• in time or space

• both important for learning

Contingency

predictive relationship between 2 events

• occurence of one predicts the porbable occurence of the other

Measuring behavior

behavior being observed must be

• defined/unambiguous

• consistent across time & settings

• objective/observable

Rate of response

frequency with which response occurs in certain period of time

• when responses are brief & have well-defined onset & offset

• very sensitive measure of behavior

Cumulative recorder

• measures total responses over time

• graphic depiction of rate of behavior

• steeper line = higher rate of response

Intensity of behavior

force/magnitude of behavior

Duration of behavior

length of time that animal repeatedly/continuously performs a behavior

Speed of behavior

amount of time required to perform a complete episode of behavior from start to finish

Latency

length of time to begin a behavior

Interval recording

measuring whether behavior occurs within series of continuous intervals

• good for behaviors with ambiguous starts/stops

Time sample recording

measure whether behavior occurs within series of discontinuous intervals

• e.g. record 1st 10 min of every hour & analyzing behaviors within those intervals

• time efficient

Topography

exact physical form of behavior

Number of errors

for any behavior that can be classified as right or wrong

Descriptive research

describe behavior & situation where it occurred, no manipulation of variables

• naturalistic observation

• case studies

Naturalistic observation

systematic observation & recording of behavior in its natural environment

• definition of variables unambiguously & objectively

• consistent & uniform observations

• commonly used in ethology

• natural environment is important as behavior may not occur when removed

Ehtology

branch of zoology focusing on study of inherited behavior patterns in animals

Ethogram

catalogue of bhevaiors observed in animal

Pros of naturalistic observation

excellent approach to gain detailed info about behavior + circumstances in which it typically occurs

Cons of naturalistic observation

cannot determine which variables are important for behavior

• often insufficient for gaining full understanding of behavior

Case Studies

extensive examination of one or a few individuals

• in natural settings/more structured settings

• common in medical research

• examining lives of gifted individuals

Limitations of case studies

• must be based on systematic observation

• must reduce observer bias

• often can’t generalise to other people, places & times

• difficult to determine which variables are responsible for which behavior

Experimental research

discovering cause & effect relationships between environmental events & behaviors

• 1 or more IVs are varied to see how they influence DV

• differences in behavior are presumed to be caused by changes in IV

Pros of experimental research

• causal statements can be made about effects of IVs on DVs

• control over environment enables isolation of IVs while controlling other influences

• easy replication

Cons of experimental research

artificial environments lead to limited applicability

World vs Lab

• events that influence behavior don’t occur in isolation

• to understand a situation, strip away unessential details & analyze it

• lab allows study of non-human organisms in controlled environments

• start with simple events to develop technqiues for studying complex ones

Control genetic makeup & learning history (why animal research)

• help eliminate/assess effects of inherited differences on learning & behavior

• animals bred for research have had identical experiences during upbringing

• impossible to control for learning histories in humans (except twins)

Strictly control experimental environment (why animal research)

• important when manipulating environment to determine its effects on learning & behavior

• humans discuss experiments with friends

• animals more consistent from day to day

• animals more insulated from outside influences so behavior is more likely to reflect the true influence of IV

Might be unethical for humans (why animal research)

• life-saving research conducted on animals

• experimental manipulations that can be aversive/harmful can be used

• experiments too long

Criticisms

• findings have limited applications & relevance to humans

• some find it morally wrong

General Process Theory of Learning

• facts about learning & behavior will generalize across many (if not all) groups of species

• depends somewhat on species involved & characteristics studied

Neuroscience

study of brain & rest of nervous system

• believe brain is seat of learning & memory

Nervous system

organ system devoted to distribution & processing of signals that affect biological functions throughout body

Central nervous system

brain & spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system

transmits signals from sensory receptors to CNS & carries commands from CNS to muscles

Neuron

special type of cell, one of main components of nervous system

• most neuroscientists focus efforts on understanding neurons

• how they control behavior

• how they change during learning (plasticity)

Cerebral cortex

brain tissue covering top & sides of brain in most vertebrates

• involved in storage & processing of sensory inputs & motor outputs

Frontal lobe

part of cerebral cortex at front of human brain

• enables person to plan & perform actions

Parietal lobe

part of cerebral cortex at top

• important for processing somatosensory (touch) inputs

Temporal lobe

part of cerebral cortex at sides

• language & auditory processing

• learning new facts

• forming new memories of events

Occipital lobe

part of cerebral cortex at rear

• important for visual processing

Cerebellum

brain region lying below cerebral cortex in back of heaf

• regulation & coordination of complex voluntary muscular movement

Brainstem

group of structures that

• connects rest of brain to spinal cord

• plays key roles in regulating automatic functions e.g. breathing & body temperature

Brain regions contributing to memory

• basal ganglia

• thalamus

• hippocampus

• amygdala

Phrenology

skull measurements to predict individual’s personality & abilities

• developed by Franz Jospeh Gall

Structural neuroimaging

modern techniques for creating pictures of anatomical structures within brain

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

method of structural neuroimaging based on recording changes in magnetic fields

Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)

type of MRI measuring connections between brain regions

Components of neurons

1. dendrites

2. cell body/soma

3. axons

Dendrites

input areas that receive signals from other neurons

Cell body/soma

integrates signals from dedrites