UNIT 0 STUDY GUIDE

Why are larger samples better?

They provide lower sampling error, provide more variability and generalizability 

How are positive expectations related to the placebo effect?

Because believing a treatment tricks your brain into believing a psychological and physical reaction

Which measure of central tendency is most affected by outliers and large ranges?

The mean

What’s the difference between independent and dependent variables?

• Independent variable: variable you manipulate

• Dependent variable: variable you observe the change

What are the 5 research designs?

• Naturalistic Observation

• Case Study

• Meta-Analysis

• Experiment

• Correlational Study

What is a Naturalistic Observation?

involves observing subjects in their natural environment without intervention

What is a Case Study?

involves an in-depth analysis/investigation of a single individual or group

What is a Meta-Analysis?

combines the results of multiple studies on the same topic

What is an Experiment?

allows cause-and-effect relationship to be established

What is a Correlational Study?

examines the relationship between two or more variables

Can we generalize information to a population when using a Naturalistic Observation?

We CANNOT generalize this data because we aren’t using random sampling

Can we generalize information to a population when using a Case Study?

We CANNOT generalize this data because it is focused on one specific person

Can we generalize information to a population when using a Meta-Analysis?

We CAN generalize this data because the use of statistics can determine the significance

Can we generalize information to a population when using a Experiment?

We CAN generalize this data because of randomized sampling and control

Can we generalize information to a population when using a Correlational Study?

We CAN generalize this data BUT ONLY TO THE SPECIFIC POPULATION

In which type of research does the scientist have the most control?

Experimental Research

When is correlational research more appropriate than an experiment?

When it is harmful to manipulate the independent variable

What controls possible confounding variables in an experiment?

Random assignment

Why is random assignment important?

In order to make sure that the controlled and experimental groups have equal amount of participants

What is correlational research good for?

Correlational research is good for examining the relationship between two or more variables

What can a correlational research tells us?

It shows us an examination of variables that cannot be manipulated

What can a correlational research NOT tell us?

It cannot tell is a cause-and-effect relationship

What is a blind experiment?

Where the participants are not aware of the research design in order to prevent bias

What is a double-blind experiment?

Where both the participants and the researchers are not aware of the research design

What is experimenter bias?

Where a researcher’s preferences influence the outcome of a study

How do you calculate mean?

add up all of the numbers and divide them by the total sum

How do you calculate median?

The middle number

How do you calculate mode?

most frequent number in the set

What is the only research method that can show A causes B, or shows causation. There is only one.

Experimental research

What is hindsight bias?

saying that you knew the outcome of something before it happened

Why is hindsight bias detrimental to science?

It is detrimental because it makes the findings sound obvious

What are the benefits of a case study?

• Provide detailed, rich data

• Useful for studying rare or unique phenomena

• Can generate new hypotheses

What are the drawbacks of a case study?

• Results may not be generalizable

• Can be time-consuming/resource-intensive

• Subjects to bias interpretation

What’s the difference between random sampling and random assignment

• Random sampling: a subset of the population where everyone has an equal chance of getting picked

• Random assignment: using chance to place participants into either the experimental or control group

Why is the whole idea of randomness important in collecting data?

Randomness is important because it prevents bias and proves generalizability

What are the benefits of surveys?

• they are cheap

• easily administered

  • efficient for gathering large amounts of data

What are the drawbacks of surveys?

self-report bias and social desirability bias

What is a correlation coefficient?

a decimal number expressed from -1.00 to +1.00

Could you identify a positive vs negative correlation on a scatter plot?

• Number closest to +1.00 or -1.00 indicates a positive correlation

• Number closest to 0 indicates a negative correlation

What is a scatter plot?

a cluster of dots that shows the relationship between two variables

How do variables interact with a positive correlation and a negative correlation?

• POSITIVE CORRELATION: they move together in the same direction upwards

• NEGATIVE CORRELATION: they move in the same direction downwards

Define hypothesis

A falsifiable, testable prediction about a future outcome between two variables

What are hypotheses used for?

used to predict a future outcome

Why is replication important?

because the same result emphasizes its validity

What is the relationship between operational definitions and replication?

Operational definitions explain how to conduct the study specifically, which makes replication possible

What measure of central tendency is the most commonly used?

mean

When is it not a good measure of “the middle”?

when a data set presents outliers in which can skew the data

What is a placebo?

a fake treatment given to a control group

What is the placebo effect?

when a person improves physically and psychologically because they think the “treatment” works

What indicates a weak correlation?

a correlation coefficient that is closer to 0

What are the percentages for 1,2,3 standard deviations from the mean?

• 1 SD = 68%

• 2 SD = 95%

• 3 SD = 99.7%

What is reliability?

when a test gives a consistent result each time it is replicated

What is validity?

a test has what it is supposed to measure

What are three cognitive biases?

Confirmation bias, Hindsight bias, Overconfidence bias

What are methods to successfully sample from the population?

Random sampling

What sampling method could lead to sampling biases? 

convenience sampling and voluntary response sampling

Why is it crucial to have a representative sample?

Because it makes generalizability easier and avoids bias

What does a small standard deviation say about the scores in a distribution?

Scores are clustered tighter around the mean (individual scores are very much similar to each other)

What are the different types of research methods? 

Experimental Research

Correlational Research

Naturalistic Observation

Case Study

Meta-Analysis

Survey

What are nonexperimental methods?

predicting behaviors without manipulating variables

What are experimental methods? 

predicting behaviors through the manipulation of variables

What ethical guidelines are required when conducting research?

1. Informed Consent

2. Protection from Emotional or Physical Harm

3. Right to Withdraw

4. Debriefing

5. Confidentiality