Evolution of Psychology and Research Methodology

A comprehensive set of vocabulary flashcards based on lecture notes for Chapters 1-3 and the Statistical Appendix, covering history, research methods, biological bases, and statistical concepts.

Psychology

The science that studies behavior and the physiological and cognitive processes that underlie behavior, and the profession that applies this science to practical problems.

Wilhelm Wundt

Considered the 'founder of psychology' who established the first formal research lab for psychology in 1879.

Structuralism

A school of thought based on the notion that the task of psychology is to analyze consciousness into its basic elements, such as sensations, feelings, and images.

Introspection

The careful, systematic self-observation of one’s own conscious experience, used primarily by structuralists.

Functionalism

A school of thought based on the belief that psychology should investigate the function or purpose of consciousness, rather than its structure.

Psychoanalysis

A theory developed by Sigmund Freud that emphasizes unconscious motives and experiences in early childhood as the governors of personality and mental disorders.

The Unconscious

According to Freud, thoughts, memories, and desires that are well below the surface of conscious awareness but that nonetheless exert great influence on behavior.

Behaviorism

A theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should study only observable behavior.

B. F. Skinner

A behaviorist who insisted that organisms tend to repeat responses that lead to positive outcomes and they tend not to repeat responses that lead to neutral or negative outcomes.

Humanism

A theoretical orientation that emphasizes the unique qualities of humans, especially their freedom and their potential for personal growth.

Cognition

The mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge, including thinking, memory, and information processing.

Evolutionary Psychology

A theoretical perspective that examines behavioral processes in terms of their adaptive value for members of a species over the course of many generations.

Positive Psychology

A movement launched by Martin Seligman that uses theory and research to understand the adaptive, creative, and fulfilling aspects of human existence.

Empiricism

The premise that knowledge should be acquired through observation; conclusions are based on direct observations rather than on reasoning, speculation, traditional beliefs, or common sense.

Operational Definition

An explanation that describes the actions or operations that will be used to measure or control a variable.

Independent Variable

A condition or event that an experimenter varies in order to see its impact on another variable.

Dependent Variable

The variable that is thought to be affected by manipulation of the independent variable.

Extraneous Variables

Any variables other than the independent variable that seem likely to influence the dependent variable in a specific study.

Confounding of Variables

Occurs when two variables are linked in a way that makes it difficult to sort out their specific effects.

Random Assignment

A procedure in which all subjects have an equal chance of being assigned to any group or condition in the study.

Correlation Coefficient

A numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables, ranging from $+1.00$ to $-1.00$.

Naturalistic Observation

A research method in which a researcher engages in careful observation of behavior without intervening directly with the subjects.

Reactivity

Occurs when a subject’s behavior is altered by the presence of an observer.

Case Study

An in-depth investigation of an individual subject, often used to investigate psychological disorders.

Sampling Bias

A problem that exists when a sample is not representative of the population from which it was drawn.

Placebo Effect

Occurs when participants' expectations lead them to experience some change even though they receive empty, fake, or ineffectual treatment.

Social Desirability Bias

A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself.

Experimenter Bias

Occurs when a researcher’s expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained.

Double-Blind Procedure

A research strategy in which neither subjects nor experimenters know which subjects are in the experimental or control groups.

Neuron

Individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate, and transmit information.

Soma

The cell body of a neuron which contains the nucleus and much of the chemical machinery common to most cells.

Dendrites

The parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information.

Axon

A long, thin fiber that transmits signals away from the soma to other neurons or to muscles or glands.

Myelin Sheath

Insulating material that encases some axons and speeds up the transmission of signals.

Synapse

A junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to another.

Glia

Cells found throughout the nervous system that provide various types of support for neurons, such as nourishment and waste removal.

Resting Potential

The stable, negative charge of a neuron when the cell is inactive.

Action Potential

A brief shift in a neuron’s electrical charge that travels along an axon.

Absolute Refractory Period

The minimum length of time after an action potential during which another action potential cannot begin.

Reuptake

A process in which neurotransmitters are sponged up from the synaptic cleft by the presynaptic membrane.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

The transmitter released by motor neurons of the somatic nervous system that causes muscles to contract.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter used by neurons that control voluntary movements; degeneration is associated with Parkinson’s disease.

Endorphins

Internally produced chemicals that resemble opiates in structure and effects, contributing to pain relief and response to stress.

Afferent Nerve Fibers

Axons that carry information inward to the central nervous system from the periphery of the body.

Efferent Nerve Fibers

Axons that carry information outward from the central nervous system to the periphery of the body.

Sympathetic Division

The branch of the autonomic nervous system that mobilizes the body's resources for emergencies; the 'fight-or-flight' response.

Parasympathetic Division

The branch of the autonomic nervous system that generally conserves bodily resources to save and store energy.

Standard Deviation

An index of the amount of variability in a set of data, indicating how much scores vary from each other and the mean.