Psychology in Your Life: Chapter 2

Nervous System

Network of billions of cells in the brain and the body, responsible for all aspects of what we think, feel, and do.
-Receives sensory input from the world through vision, hearing, touch, taste, and smell.
-Process information in the brain by paying attention to it, perceiving it, and remembering it.

Central Nervous System

Part of the nervous system that includes brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System

Consists of nerve cells in soft organs in the rest of the body. Enables nerves to connect the central nervous system with the muscles, organs, and glands.

Neurons

Basic units of nervous system. Cells that receive, integrate and transmit information to the nervous system. Operate through electrical impulses, communicate with other neurons through chemical signals, and form neural networks.

Dendrites

Branch like extensions of the neuron with receptors that detect information from other neurons.

Cell Body

Part of neuron where information from where thousands of other neurons is collected and integrated.

Axon

Long narrow outgrowth of a neuron that enables the neuron to transmit information to other neurons.

Terminal Buttons

At end of axon, knob-like structures.

Synapse

Site where communication occurs between neurons through neurotransmitters.

Membrane

Thin covering around parts of a neuron.
-Separates inside and outside of neuron
-Semipermeable (things can pass through)
-Regulates neurons electrical activity

Resting State

Electrical charge inside neuron is slightly more negative than outside charge.

Action Potential

(With enough stimulation) Neural impulse that travels along axon then causes release of neurotransmitters into synapse. Neuron then returns to resting state.

Neuron Communication Phases: Transmission Phase

Neurons pass signals to receiving neurons.

Neuron Communication Phases: Reception Phase

Neurotransmitters release from terminal buttons then cross synapse and fit into receptors of dendrites.

Neuron Communication Phases: Integration Phase

Each neurotransmitter has either excitatory or inhibitory effects on postsynaptic neuron. Effects summed together in cell body. If enough activation, it will lead to another action potential.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical substances that carry signals to one neuron to another.

Myelin Sheith

Fatty layer around axon that makes action potent ion travel quickly across the axon.

Presynaptic Neuron

Neuron that sends.

Postsynaptic Neuron

Neuron that receives.

Receptors

Specialized molecules that specifically respond to certain types of neurotransmitters. (In postsynaptic neuron) (ex. Lock and Key)

Excitatory and Inhibitory

In integration, postsynaptic neuron processed incoming signals. The binding of neurotransmitters with their receptors on postsynaptic neuron can produce two signal types, excitatory and inhibitory

Excitatory

Excites the neuron. Increases the chance it will fire.

Inhibitory

Inhibit the neuron. Decreasing the likelihood it will fire.

Agonists

Drugs that enhance actions of neurotransmitters

Antagonists

Drugs that inhibit actions of neurotransmitters.

Acetylcholine

Type of neurotransmitter. Responsible for motor control. Binds on receptors on muscle cells from the synapse. Involved in memory, learning, attention, and sleeping.

Epinephrine

Type of neurotransmitter. Energy. Binds to receptors throughout body producing a rush.

Norephinephrine

Type of neurotransmitter. Related to epinephrine. Involved in states of arousal or alertness.

Serotonin

Type of neurotransmitter. Involved in psychological activities, emotional states, impulse control, dreaming. Lack of this results in sadness, anxiousness, food cravings, and aggressive behavior.

Dopamine

Type of neurotransmitter. Involves motivation, reward and motor control over voluntary movement.

Gaba

Type of neurotransmitter. Main inhibitory neurotransmitter. Inhibition of action potentials, anxiety reduction, intoxication (through alcohol).

Glutamate

Type of neurotransmitter. Main Excitatory neurotransmitter. Aids in learning and memory by strengthening synaptic connections.

Endorphins

Type of neurotransmitter. Natural pain reduction and reward.

Phrenology

Study of bumps on the skull.

Broncas Area

Small portion of left frontal region of brain that is crucial for speech. (Paul Bronca)

Methods to Study Brain in Action: Electroencephalograph (EEG)

Electrocutes on scalp act like microphones to pick up brain activity.

Methods to Study Brain in Action: Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Measures changes in the bloods oxygen level. Enables researchers to assess the brains blood flow.

Methods to Study Brain in Action: Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

Determines whether a brain region is important for a task. Compares performances when area is working efficiently and when it isn't.

Lower Brain

Controls Breathing, heartbeat, swallowing, and moving. Connected to body through spinal cord. Made of two tissue types: Gray matter (dominated by cell bodies of neurons) & White matter (consists mostly of axons and myelin shieths that surround it.

Spinal Cord

Most important job, communication between the brain and rest of body.

Hindbrain

Includes brainstem and cerebellum.

Brainstem

Controls breathing, heart rate, swallowing, vommiting, urination, and orgasm. Significant blow can cause death.

Cerebellum

Back of brainstem. Proper motor function/learning, coordination, balance, making plans, remembering events, & using language and emotion.
Blows to:
-Bottom: Head tilt and balance.
-Ridge that runs up the back of cerebellum: Walking
-Lobes on other side: loss of coordination with limbs.

Midbrain

At top of brainstem. Consists in several structures involved in movements of mind and body.

Substansia Nigra

In the midbrain. Voluntary movements and initiating movements, produces dopamine.

Forebrain

Consists of two main areas: cerebral cortex and five subcortical structures.

Cerebral Cortex

Surface that makes up outermost part of forebrain.

Subcortical Structures

In forebrain. Psychological functions. Thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, basal ganglia.

Limbic Systems

Border between parts of the brain that evolved earliest (hindbrain & midbrain) and the most recent part (cerebral cortex). Important for controlling motivated behaviors and emotion.

Thalamus

Gateway to cortex. Receives almost all incoming sensory information, organizes it, and relays it to cortex (except smell). Partially shuts out incoming sensations while sleeping to help stay asleep.

Hypothalamus

Subcortial forebrain structure involved in regulating bodily functions (Temperature, rhythms, blood pressure, blood sugar) and motivation for behaviors (drinking, eating, aggression, and sex. Below thalamus. Affects functions of many internal organs.

Hippocampus

Form new memories by creating new neural concoctions within cerebral cortex for each new experiences. Can change with experience.

Amygdala

Infront of hippocampus. Vital role in learning to associate things with emotional responses and processing emotional information and evaluating emotional significance of facial expression, activates strongly with fearful face and processes sexual arousal especially when people view sexual stimuli.

Basal Ganglia

Subcortial structures crucial for planning and producing movement. Damage can impair learning habits.

Nucleus Accumbens

In Basal Ganglia. Experiences reward, reinforcement, and motivating behavior. Nearly every experience activates dopamine in Basal Ganglia.

Lobes of Cerebral Cortex: Occipital

Back of brain. Devoted to vision. Contains primary visual cortex (major destination and processor of visual information).

Lobes of Cerebral Cortex: Parietal

Front of occipital lobes and behind frontal lobe. Sense of touch and picturing layout of spaces in environment.

Lobes of Cerebral Cortex: Temporal

Below parietal lobes and in front of occipital lobe. Processing auditory information and perceiving objects and faces. Within hippocampus and amygdala.

Lobes of Cerebral Cortex: Frontal

Front of brain. Movement and complex processes (rational thought, attention, and social process).

Prefrontal Cortex

Critical for rational thought, sense of self and capacity to empathize with others or feel guilty about harming them. Some parts direct and maintain attention, keep ideas in mind while distracted, and developing/ acting on plans.

Somatic Nervous System

Transmits sensory signals and motor signals between central nervous system and skin, muscles, and joints.

Autonamic Nervous System

Transmits sensory signals and motor signals between the central nervous system, the bodies glands, and internal organs. Regulates bodies internal environment. Has two divisions: Sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system.

Endocrine System

Communication system that uses hormones to influence thoughts and actions. Uses hormones while nervous system electrochemical signals.

Hormones

Chemical substance released in bloodstream by endocrine system.

Androgens

Hormones more found in males i.e. testosterone.

Estrogens

Hormones more founds in males i.e. estradiol.

Growth Hormone

Prompts bone, cartilage and muscle tissue to grow or helps regenerate after an injury.

Genes

Units of heredity which partially determine an organisms characteristics.

Genotype

Genetic makeup

Phenotype

Observable physical and psychological characteristics.

Behavioral Genetics

Study of how genes and environments interact to influence psychological factors.

Plasticity

Property of the brain that causes it to change through experience, drugs, or injury.

Reorganization

Entirely new concoctions develop between neurons involves entire nervous system.