PSYCH 1001 Uiowa Midterm 1

Psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

mental processes

The thoughts, feelings, and motives that each of us experiences privately but that cannot be observed directly

Structuralism

an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind

Functionalism

James's approach to mental processes, emphasizing the functions and purposes of the mind and behavior in the individual's adaptation to the environment

Biological Approach

an approach to psychology focusing on the body, especially the brain and nervous system

behavioral approach

An approach to psychology emphasizing the scientific study of observable behavioral responses and their environmental determinants.

Psychodynamic approach

A psychological perspective that analyzes how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts

humanistic approach

An approach to psychology emphasizing a person's positive qualities, the capacity for positive growth, and the freedom to choose any destiny.

Cognitive Approach

An approach to psychology emphasizing the mental processes involved in knowing: how we direct our attention, perceive, remember, think, and solve problems.

Evolutionary Approach

An approach to psychology centered on evolutionary ideas such as adaptation, reproduction, and natural selection as the basis for explaining specific human behaviors.

Sociocultural Approach

An approach to psychology that examines the ways in which social and cultural environments influence behavior.

Variable

A factor that can change in an experiment

Theory

a broad idea or set of closely related ideas that attempts to explain observations and to make predictions about future observations

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

operational definition

a definition that provides an objective description of how a variable is going to be measured and observed in a particular study

case study

An in-depth investigation of an individual subject.

correlational research

Research that examines the relationships between variables, whose purpose is to examine whether and how two variables change together.

third variable problem

The circumstance where a variable that has not been measured accounts for the relationship between two other variables. Third variables are also known as confounds.

longitudinal study

a special kind of systematic observation, used by correlational researchers, that involves obtaining measures of the variables of interest in multiple waves over time

experiment

a carefully regulated procedure in which the researcher manipulates one or more variables that are believed to influence some other variable

random assignment

Researchers' assignment of participants to groups by chance, to reduce the likelihood that an experiment's results will be due to preexisting differences between groups.

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

confederate

a person who is given a role to play in a study so that the social context can be manipulated

dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

experimental group

the participants in an experiment who receive the treatment

control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

validity

the soundness of the conclusions that a researcher draws from an experiment

external validity

the degree to which an experimental design actually reflects the real-world issues it is supposed to address

internal validity

the degree to which changes in the dependent variable are due to the manipulation of the independent variable

experimenter bias

the influence of the experimenter's expectations on the outcome of research

demand characteristics

Any aspects of a study that communicate to the participants how the experimenter wants them to behave.

research participant bias

In an experiment, the influence of participants' expectations, and of their thoughts on how they should behave, on their behavior.

Placebo

A harmless pill, medicine, or procedure prescribed more for the psychological benefit to the patient than for any physiological effect.

placebo effect

The situation where participants' expectations, rather than the experimental treatment, produce an experimental outcome.

double-blind experiment

an experiment in which neither the experimenter nor the participants know which participants received which treatment

naturalistic observation

The observation of behavior in a real-world setting.

nervous system

the body's electrochemical communication circuitry

Plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

afferent nerves

Also called sensory nerves; nerves that carry information about the external environment to the brain and spinal cord via sensory receptors.

efferent nerves

Also called motor nerves; nerves that carry information out of the brain and spinal cord to other areas of the body.

neural networks

networks of nerve cells that integrate sensory input and motor output

central nervous system

brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

the network of nerves that connects the brain and spinal cord to other parts of the body

somatic nervous system

The body system consisting of the sensory nerves, whose function is to convey information from the skin and muscles to the CNS about conditions such as pain and temperature, and the motor nerves, whose function is to tell muscles what to do.

autonomic nervous system

the body system that takes messages to and from the body's internal organs, monitoring such processes as breathing, heart rate, and digestion

sympathetic nervous system

the part of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body to mobilize it for action and thus is involved in the experience of stress

parasympathetic nervous system

the part of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body

Stress

the response of your body and mind to being challenged or threatened

Stressors

circumstances and events that threaten individuals and tax their coping abilities and that cause physiological changes to ready the body to handle the assault of stress

Neurons

One of two types of cells in the nervous system; neurons are the nerve cells that handle the information-processing function.

glial cells

The second of two types of cells in the nervous system; glial cells provide support, nutritional benefits, and other functions and keep neurons running smoothly.

cell body

The part of the neuron that contains the nucleus, which directs the manufacture of substances that the neuron needs for growth and maintenance.

mylein sheath

layer of fatty tissue that covers many axons and helps speed neural impulses

Dendrites

treelike fibers projecting from a neuron, which receive information and orient it toward the neuron's cell body

Axon

the part of the neuron that carries information away from the cell body toward other cells

resting potential

The stable, negative charge of a neuron when it is inactive.

action potential

the brief wave of positive electrical charge that sweeps down the axon

all or nothing principle

The principle that once the electrical impulse reaches a certain level of intensity (its threshold), it fires and moves all the way down the axon without losing any intensity.

Synapses

Tiny spaces between neurons; the gaps between neurons are referred to as synaptic gaps.

Agonist

a drug that mimics or increases a neurotransmitter's effects

Antagonist

drug which blocks the activity of neurotransmitters

Hindbrain

Located at the skull's rear, the lowest portion of the brain, consisting of the medulla, cerebellum, and pons.

brain stem

the stemlike brain area that includes much of the hindbrain (excluding the cerebellum) and the midbrain; connects with the spinal cord at its lower end and then extends upward to encase the reticular formation in the midbrain

Midbrain

Located between the hindbrain and forebrain, an area in which many nerve-fiber systems ascend and descend to connect the higher and lower portions of the brain; in particular, the midbrain relays information between the brain and the eyes and ears.

reticular formation

A system in the midbrain comprising a diffuse collection of neurons involved in stereotyped patterns of behavior such as walking, sleeping, and turning to attend to a sudden noise.

Forebrain

the brain's largest division and its most forward part

Amygdala

An almond-shaped structure within the base of the temporal lobe that is involved in the discrimination of objects that are necessary for the organism's survival, such as appropriate food, mates, and social rivals.

limbic system

A set of subcortical brain structures central to emotion, memory, and reward processing.

Hippocampus

the structure in the limbic system that has a special role in the storage of memories

Thalamus

The forebrain structure that sits at the top of the brain stem in the brain's central core and serves as an important relay station.

basal ganglia

Large neuron clusters located above the thalamus and under the cerebral cortex that work with the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex to control and coordinate voluntary movements.

Hypothalamus

A small forebrain structure, located just below the thalamus, that monitors three pleasurable activities—eating, drinking, and sex—as well as emotion, stress, and reward.

cerebral cortex

Part of the forebrain, the outer layer of the brain, responsible for the most complex mental functions, such as thinking and planning.

Neocortex

The outermost part of the cerebral cortex, making up 80 percent of the cortex in the human brain.

occipital lobe

structures located at the back of the head

parietal lobe

structures at the top and toward the rear of the head that are involved in registering spatial location

temporal lobe

structures in the cerebral cortex that are located just above the ears that are involved in hearing, language, and memory

frontal lobe

portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements

prefrontal cortex

An important part of the frontal lobes that is involved in higher cognitive functions such as planning, reasoning, and self-control.

somatosensory cortex

a region in the cerebral cortex that processes information about body sensations, located at the front of the parietal lobes

motor cortex

A region in the cerebral cortex that processes information about voluntary movement, located just behind the frontal lobes.

association cortex

Sometimes called association areas, the region of the cerebral cortex that is the site of the highest intellectual functions, such as thinking and problem solving.

corpus callosum

The large bundle of axons that connects the brain's two hemispheres, responsible for relaying information between the two sides.

endocrine system

The body system consisting of a set of glands that regulate the activities of certain organs by releasing their chemical products into the bloodstream.

Glands

Organs or tissues in the body that create chemicals that control many of our bodily functions

Hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

Pancreas

Regulates the level of sugar in the blood

pituitary gland

A pea-sized gland just beneath the hypothalamus that controls growth and regulates other glands.

adrenal glands

Glands at the top of each kidney that are responsible for regulating moods, energy level, and the ability to cope with stress.

stem cells

unique primitive cells that have the capacity to develop into most types of human cells

Sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

Perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

top-down processing

The operation in sensation and perception, launched by cognitive processing at the brain's higher levels, that allows the organism to sense what is happening and to apply that framework to information from the world.

bottom-up processing

The operation in sensation and perception in which sensory receptors register information about the external environment and send it up to the brain for interpretation.

sensory receptors

Specialized cells unique to each sense organ that respond to a particular form of sensory stimulation.

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

difference threshold

the degree of difference that must exist between two stimuli before the difference is detected

Weber's Law

to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage

subliminal perception

the detection of information below the level of conscious awareness

signal detection theory

an approach to perception that focuses on decision making about stimuli under conditions of uncertainty