filibuster
impeding or delaying legislation by making long speeches until a deadline is passed
racial rights campaigns on
-voting rights
-affirmative action
-immigration reform
-political representation
3 methods used by racial rights campaigners:
-demonstration and civil resistance
-legal methods
-voter registration drives
immigration and national identity
immigration has implications in the areas of fariness, national identity, economic opportunity and - especially since 9/11 - homeland security
affirmative action
a policy of favouring historically disadvantaged members of the community
criticism of equality of opportunity
many civil rights advocates believe ‘giving rights to people’ cannot guarantee minory rights and representation, this woud merely give the appearance of rights and equality
equality of outcome
introduce racial advantage through such policies as busing, quotas and affirmative action
affirmative action in employment
preferential hiring practices for minority groups => diversify
how do conservative groups and republicans view affirmative action programmes
both patronising to minorities and unfair to majorities
kennedy’s executive order 10925 1961
‘to take affirmative action to ensure applicants are treated during employment without regard to their race, creed, colour or national origin’
Regents of the university of California V Bakke 1978.
What happened:
This was one of the first challenges to Affirmative Actions. Bakke was seeking admission to medical school and was twice rejected. Bakke said that due to racial quotas at the school as 16/100 were reserved for minority students.
Decision:
The S.C ruled that AA was constitutional and race could be used as one of the several factors but racial quotas could not be considered
Gratz v Bollinger 2003
What happened:
university of Michigan
150 points to get an offer (grades, LSAT, sports etc.)
blanket 20 points given to anyone from an unrepresented background
Decision:
6-3
unconstitutional because it was a blanket + 20 pts all applicants
Gutter V. Bollinger 2003
what happened:
University of Michigan law school
Gruther - GPA 3.8
161 LSAT
rejects from law school and challenged
Deicison
5-4
not unconstitutional because individual cases were considered one by one. More than just race
Meredith v Jefferson County 2007
What happened:
1/2 cases in 2007 over education
school (capacity, area, race)
-all schools had to have over 15% African American students but under 50%
-Meredith said the school rejected her son on the basis of race
Decision:
5-4
unconstitutional
strict scrutiny (individual considerations narrow outlook on applicants) has not applied
Fisher I 2013
What happened:
Abigail Fisher- top 12% of her class
Texas University take the top 10% (automatically) but everyone else race can be considered
Lower court - they uphold the admission process
Decision:
7-1 (kagan)
S.C sends back down and asks them to consider strict scrutiny
Fisher II 2016
What happened:
Lower court keeps their decision the same.
s.c uphold the decison of the lower court (supporting the admission policy) as strict scrutiny had been met
common theme with all cases
upheld each time, but scope of affirmative action got narrower
president george w bush supported
section 4 voting rights
2006, congress re-authorised the Voting Rights Act’s key provisions for another 25 years, including section 4 which included the preclearance formula used to determine which states & localities must have any major charges in their voting laws or practices approved in advance at federal court
For the people act 2021
updates voting procedures and require states to turn over the task of redrawing congressional districts to independent commissions, thus potentially eliminating the distortion of gerrymandering.
Why would republicans not be supportive of voting rights
when voting turnout increases, democrats have the upper hand
the immediate consequences of shelby v holder
Texas announved that voter idenitification law that had been blocked would go into immediate effect and that the state’s restrictive ways would no longer need federal government’s approval
Where has voter ID been introduced
Alabama, Mississippi, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas and Virginia have high proportion of black voters
felony disentranchisement
among the black community had risen sharply since 1980 (1 in every 13 AA lost their right to vote because of past conviction)
what does SC ruling out curbside voting do?
support state voting restriction
minority representation
1984 - 21 black american members of congress - all in House of representative
2021 - 117th congress 26% were minority ethnic groups/ the number of black americans increased from 56 to 63
minority representation in the race for the presidency
-Shirley Chisholm 1972 became the first major party black American candidate for the presidency when she competed in that year’s democratic primaries
-Jesse Jackson 1984 became the first black American to win a major-party
body of electors who elect the US president
electoral college
presidential primary
a state based election to choose a party’s candidate for the presidency. It shows support for candidates among ordinary voters
presidential caucuses
a state based series of meetings to choose a party’s candidate for the presidency. They attract unrepresentative & low turnouts
-states that hold caucuses are usually geographically large but thinly populated
invisible primary
‘‘test voters’’
fundraise and books.
weaknesses of primary/caucuses
low turnout leads to..
extreme conservative vote
extreme liberal vote
national convention
candidates who won
announce their VP
caucus states
Iowa, North Dakota and Nevada
2016
Republican had 10 caucuses
Democrats had 14 states caucuses
different types of primaries
semi-closed primaries
open primaries
closed primaries
semi-closed primaries
registered voted and unregistered party can vote
open primaries
anyone can vote
closed primaries
only registered to party can vote
superficial roles of party conventions
select the presidential and vice presidential candidates for the party
Decide the policy platform
To act as publicity for the candidate
select the presidential and vice presidential candidates for the party
Delegates vote to decide who is the presidential nominee. The rules of each party require that a candidate gains over 50 per cent of delegates. If no candidate achieves this, a brokered convention takes place requiring more rounds of voting
e.g Biden had the support of 2,687 delegates, easily exceeding the 1,991 needed to secure the nomination
Decide the policy platform
Delegates debate and vote to determine the policy of the party (and therefore the candidate) for the presidential election. The convention takes place over several days, allowing for detailed policy debate.
e.g.
The democratic platform was a 90-page document containing a range of policy aspirations across all main policy areas
Republicans chose not to write a new platform used the same one.
To act as publicity for the candidate
Conventions mark the start of the campaign and are a key part of the process. The winning candidate can sell their message to the public, often through attacks on the other party, stage-managed speeches by other politicians and endorsement by celebrities. The choice of state is also important: party conventions are often held in swing states.
e.g.
2020 conventions produced no ‘bounce’ for either candidate
Biden’s support 1% ^
Trump’s support 3% ^
significant roles of party conventions
To reunite the party
To rally party activist
To reunite the party
conventions can be very important for parties after the divisive primary process. The battle between candidates from the same party can be put aside. Losing candidates often give speeches endorsing the winner. This can create positive publicity and help win the election
e.g.
dividing parties = losing parties
Ted Cruz - ‘‘vote with your conscience’ rather than ‘vote for Trump’
To rally party activists
Conventions are attended and watched by party activists who are crucial in helping a candidate win. They organise events, contact voters and raise funds. A good convention will address these people as well as the general public, to thank and enthuse them.
national party convention
the meeting held every four years by each of the two major parties to select presidential and vice presidential candidates and agree the party platform
formal: significant
(formality)
-picking the president
-picking the V.P
-announcing policy platform
Informal: significant
-Heal the party
-Provides a bounce ‘‘opinion polls’’
-enthuse the party faithful →campaign for you
-enthuse ordinary people
choosing your ‘‘running mate’’
pick someone who ‘‘balances the ticket’’
e.g.
2008
Barack obama is…
inexperienced (4 years in senate)
young
liberal
black
Joe Biden is…
experienced (20+ years in senate + chair of foreign affairs committee)
older
more centrist
white
electoral college
the name for the body of electors who elect the US president
ECV system
50 states = no. of senators (2) + no. of HoR (538)
(no. of senators protects smaller states)
count votes
‘‘1st tuesday after the 1st monday’’ in November
(time frame: 2nd November - 8th November)
FPTP → winner takes all (270 to win)
e.g. Maine and Nebraska (2 ECV for the overall winner. Rest are decided in each individual district)
Nebraska
ECV : 5
HoR = 3 = districs
Senators = 2
For arguments for the electoral college
-smaller states are represented well
-clear winner
-if no majority = congress
HoR choose the president
Senate choose V.P
only failed twice in 1800 and 1824 where the electoral collee failed to come up with a winner
against arguments for the electoral college
-tyranny of majority
-can win without popular votes
Trump had 3mill less in 2016
Bush had 5m less in 2000
Hillary Clinton won popular vote but not electoral college
-faithless electors
11 in 2016
incumbent
somebody currently holding an office or position
why do presidents have an advantage
-fundraising advantage
-base of support (from the party) and donors (biden outperformed Trump - has established links with donors)
-status (name recognition) instant recognition (obama →primary →a book)
-Risk aversion
-Success/ what they’ve achieved
foreign (afghanistan withdrawal)
domestic (obamacare, stimulus package)
-experience
-no primary
George SR faces a challenge from pat Buchanan →damaged goods
progressive
somebody who believes in using government power to change and improve society
strengthened national party structures
-campaign finance laws
-TV
-opinion polls
-New technology to target voters (direct mailing, social media)
-Increased ideological cohesion
polarisation
appointments = gorsuch
abortion/gun rights = ideological lines
-Systems to recruit & train
what are the key ideas and principles of the Democratic Party and the Republican Party
social and moral issues:
racial equality, abortion, LGBT rights
economic policy:
government intervention, taxation, minimum wage,
Social welfare:
welfare benefits, healthcare, food stamps
why do factions matter?
-influence ideological direction of a party
-affect unity (and effectiveness) of a party
-president’s policy goals. (biden → Joe Manchin)
-exist as voter groups, which may influence election results, especially in primaries (more radical/ more important)
Democratic Party Factions
liberals/progressives
moderates
conservatives
liberals democrats
economics policy: free college education for all
social policy: LGBTQ+ rights, environmental issues
Moral issues: Social and Racial justice, opposing death penalty and mandatory prison sentences
Associated Caucuses: Congressional Progressive Caucus (CPC) just under 100 members in the 116th congress (2019-21)
Key members: Bernie Sanders, AOC
Moderates democrats
economic policy:
a federal (public option) for healthcare, tax reforms for the middle class, college more affordable
Social policy:
cautious about wholesale reform of the police, measures to reduce climate change
Moral issues:
biden pardoning marijuana low levels crimes, Biden support for abortion, fair and humane immigration reform
Associated cacuses:
New Democratic coalition, just over 100 members in the 116th congress (116th congress (2019-21) ) largest democrat grouping in congress
Key members:
Joe Biden, Clinton, Terri Sewell
conservative democrats
economic policy:
concerned about the growth of the state and state deficit (neo-conservative) favouring balanced budget, many voted against obamacare
Social policy:
less supportive of gun rights but no official stance on social issues
Moral issues:
less supportive of LGBTQ rights and gun control
Associated caucuses:
Blue Dog coalition: just 26 members in the 116th congress (2019-21) smallest democrat grouping in congress
Key members:
senator joe manchin
congressman Jim cooper
Republican Party Factions
Moderates (crossover with dems)
Social Conservatives (evangelical)
Libertarians (liberty)
Fiscal conservatives
evangelical
a form of protestantism focused on teachings of the bible and converting people. (originalism of religion
moderate republicans
economic policy: advocate a bigger role for the state within society and the economy, sympathetic towards higher public spending on education
social policy: less socially conservative than other factions of the Republican party, unwilling to repeal obamacare in its entirety
Moral issues: more sympathetic towards immigration
Associated caucuses: Tuesday group (founded 1994) with roughly 15-20 members. Tend to come from suburban seats. The smallest republican grouping in congress
Key members:
Senators susan collings, Lisa markouski, congressman John katho
Fiscal conservatives
Economic Policy:
keen to reduce gov spending in most areas, strongest advocates of ‘small government’ tax cuts, strong supporters of balanced budget and reducing budget deficit
Social policy:
keen to push back government regulation such as some environmental protection measures, keen to reappeal obamacare and health spending
Moral issues:
more socially liberal in certain areas such as soft drug
Associated caucuses:
Freedom caucus: 35-40 members in late 2019, do not publish official membership lists, usually represent strongly republican areas (south and midwest)
emerged out of the tea party movement
key members:
Rand paul
Andy biggs
social conservatives
economic policy:
may also be fiscal conservatives and vice versa, oppose general welfare provisions
social policy:
strong links with the ‘religious right’ and white conservative evangelical christianity, support prayer in public schools
Moral issues:
strong supporters of traditional heterosexual marriage and prolife stance on abortion
favour death penalty, robust policing and tough sentancing
2nd amendmnet defenders
against recreational drugs
Associated caucuses:
Republican study committee
under 150 members in late 2019, the largest ideological caucus in congress
key members:
senators Ted Cruz (texas)
macro rubio (florida)
former v.p. mike pence
evaluate the view that the parties are the same as each other in America
economy
f: moderates with moderates
a: fisca conservatives and liberal democrats
social
f: all democrats with moderate conservative
a: fiscal conservatives + libertarians HATE obamacare
whereas bernie sanders wanted to extend it
populism
idea of taking chunks which work from each brand
hardline
unwilling to change ideas
voter groups
race
religion
gender
education
race voting groups
Black: low turnout, likely to be Dem, voting rights and affirmative action (2020= 87% biden and 12% trump)
Hispanic: low turnout, likely to be Dem, immigration policy for targets (2020= 65% biden and 32% trump)
White: 41% voted for biden, likely to be republican
religion voting groups
Jewish: reliable democrat voters, traditionally more sympathetic with minorities
white evangelicals: tend to be reliable republican voters, with congressional members of the social conservatives supporting the views that these voters hold. (76% voted for Trump)
Gender voting groups
men: likely to be republican
women: in every election since 1980, have voted in higher proportions than men. More likely to support the Democratic party. 40-49% vote republican. 41% of women voted for Trump in 2016
education voting groups
below college-level education : more republican
college-level education and above: more democrat
interest groups
non-elected groups, with their own interest or cause, that try to influence government policy
single issue interest groups
an interest group that tries to influence change over a very narrow policy area e.g. NRA
professional interest group
an interest group which represents the economic interests of its members - often these are professional associations e.g. The American Farm Bureau Federation, American Bar Association
policy interest group
an interest group that tries to influence a wide policy area.
e.g. The American Israali Public Affairs Committee (has greater breadth over the issues they are about)
resources of interest groups
money -
contributions to election campaigns, organise grassroots, hire expensive lobbyists e.g. NRA $5m on lobbyists, $700k on campaigns
membership-
big group = more effective, mobilise voters= big threat (short election cycle)
access-
to politicians
tactics of interest groups
campaigning, lobbying, donate
amicus brief
friend of the court
policy profile
the main policies of a party
why are interest groups so significant
number of access points: executive,congress,states,supreme court
rights are protected:
The supremem court
shorter election cycles
politicians are easier to persuade