psyc 100- Chapter 4

Human Development

age-related physical, intellectual, and social changes that occur throughout the lifespan.

Early childhood

12 months to 6 years.

Middle childhood

6-12 years.

Adolescence

12-20 years.

Young adulthood

20-45 years.

Middle adulthood

45-60 years.

Later adulthood

60 years to death.

Teratogens

Agents that harm the embryo or fetus

Example:

• Alcohol, Drugs, Lead, Mercury, Radiation, Hyperthermia

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD)

Abnormal facial features: a smooth ridge between the nose and upper lip, a very thin upper lip, and small eyes
● Low body weight, Short height

Grasping reflexes

Grip tightly when something touches baby’s palm

Rooting reflex

Turn head and open mouth with side of baby’s face is touched... seeking food

Sucking reflex

Suck when something touches the roof of the baby’s mouth

Babinski Reflex

A reflex where the toes fan out when the sole of the foot is stroked.

Tonic Neck Reflex

Also known as the fencing reflex, where the baby turns their head and extends the arm on the same side.

Myelination

An important way that brain circuits mature through synaptic connections.

Brain Growth by Age 2

The human brain has grown to about 75% of the adult size.

Brain Development at Birth

The brain is sufficiently developed to support basic reflexes, but further development is necessary for cognitive and motor development.

Genetic Makeup and Environment

Each person's genetic makeup and environment influences what happens throughout that individual's development.

Nervous System Maturation

The nervous system matures in a down and out fashion, meaning head to down and center to out.

Example:

• Crawling occurs before walking

• Big headed toddlers

• Limited coordination

What is the sequence of Toddler Development?

The sequence of development is stable, orderly, and predictable.

• Lift head at 4 months of age

• Roll over at 5 months

• Sit without support at 8 months

• Walk alone by 15 months

What are key physical and brain developments that occur during childhood?

Children grow about 2–2.5 inches and 4–7 lbs per year, improve hand-eye coordination, and experience continued but slower brain development.

Onset Age for Menarche

The average age of menarche has decreased from age 16 in the 1880s to current 12 to 13.

What factors play apart in influencing the age of Menarche?

Better nutrition, better living conditions, and improved medical care are reasons for the decrease in the age of menarche.

How can stress affect  age of menarche?

More family conflict can lead to earlier menarche due to stress hormones mimicking sex hormones.

What are negative outcomes of early puberty?

Earlier onset of puberty is related to negative outcomes such as lower self-image, anxiety, and depression.

Adult Brain Weight

The brain reaches adult weight by age 16, approximately 2.5 pounds, but is not fully developed.

Peak Strength Age

The human body typically hits its peak strength in its 20s, then starts to decline.

Andropause

Men experience hormone changes later in life, including testosterone reductions leading to erectile dysfunction.

Dementia

A decline in cognitive abilities including memory and reasoning, affecting 35% of people over the age of 85.

Alzheimer's Disease

A serious brain degeneration disease resulting in significant dementia.

• Physical activity can delay the onset of Alzheimer’s disease

• Being bilingual is associated with later onset of Alzheimer’s disease

  
  

What Are Infants Thinking and Feeling?

• Attracted to female faces and new stimuli.

• Can learn through rewards.

• Show evidence of learning before birth (in utero).

• Habituate: get bored with repeated experiences.

• Sensitive to smell, taste, pain, and touch.

Longitudinal

Research design that studies the same sample at several points in time.

Cross-sectional

Research design that studies different samples at one point in time.

Longitudinal Research: Change at individual level

Refers to the changes observed in the same individuals over time.

Cross-Sectional Research: Snapshot of a given point in time

Refers to the data collected from different individuals at a single moment.

Assimilation

The process through which we fit new experiences into our existing schemata.

Accommodation

The process through which we change or modify existing schemata to accommodate new experiences.

What are the four stages of Piaget’s Model of Cognitive Development?

1. Sensorimotor 

2. Preoperational 

3. Concrete operational 

4. Formal operational 

Sensorimotor Stage

First stage of cognitive development (Birth - 2 years).

• Understand the world through movement and senses.

• Explore using sucking, grasping, looking, and listening.

• Develop object permanence

• Recognize they are separate from others and objects.

• Learn that their actions cause effects in the environment.

Object Permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen.

Preoperational Stage

Second stage of cognitive development (2 - 7 years).

• Kids start using words and pictures to represent things.

• They’re egocentric — can’t easily see others’ viewpoints.

• Don’t understand conservation (same amount can look different).

• Thinking and language grow, but thinking is still simple and concrete.

Preoperational: Principle of Conservation

The understanding that quantity does not change even when its shape changes

Example:

• Knowing that water in a tall, thin glass is the same amount as in a short, wide one.

• Children in the preoperational stage usually don’t understand this yet.

Egocentrism

The inability to differentiate between one's own perspective and that of others.

Concrete Operational Stage

Third stage of cognitive development (7 - 11 years).

• Start to think logically about real, concrete events.

• Understand Principle of conservation

• Thinking is logical and organized

• Begin using inductive reasoning

Formal Operational Stage

Fourth Stage of cognitive development (Age 12+)

• Can think abstractly and reason about hypothetical situations.

• Think more about moral, ethical, social, and political issues.

• Use deductive reasoning 

What are updates to Piaget’s Theory?

• Children show cognitive skills earlier than Piaget suggested.

• Development is more gradual rather than step-by-step stages.

• Social and cultural context plays a major role in cognitive growth.

Stanford Marshmallow Experiment

An example of a longitudinal study focusing on self-control in children.

Harvard Study of Adult Development

An example of a longitudinal study examining adult life outcomes.

Theory of Mind

The understanding that other people's thoughts and feelings are separate and different from one's own.

Vygotsky: Cultural Influence on Knowledge

• Culture and social interaction (especially with parents) shape cognitive development.

• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

• Learning happens through guidance and collaboration with others.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

The gap between what a child can do alone and what they can do with help.

What are Kohlberg's three stages of Moral Development?

A theory that posits children and adults move through three stages of moral development: Preconventional, Conventional, and Post-conventional.

Preconventional Stage

Moral reasoning is based on avoiding punishment and personal gain.

• Stage 1: Obedience & Punishment — behavior based on avoiding punishment.

• Stage 2: Self-Interest — behavior guided by personal gain or reward.

Conventional Stage

Moral reasoning is based on upholding societal laws and norms, as well as the expectations of family and community.

• Stage 3: Interpersonal Conformity — seeking approval and being “good.”

• Stage 4: Authority & Social Order — following laws and rules to maintain order.

Post-conventional Stage

Moral reasoning is based on universal ethical principles and human rights, which may supersede social laws.

• Stage 5: Social Contract — valuing fairness and individual rights.

• Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles — guided by internal moral values and justice.

Imprinting

A sensitive period during which young animals become strongly attached to a nearby adult.

Imprint: Harlow's monkeys findings

Research that established the importance of contact comfort in aiding social development.

Attachment

A strong emotional connection between people that persists over time and across circumstances.

Types of Attachments

1. Secure

2. Resistant

3. Avoidant

4. Disorganized.

Secure Attachment

A type of attachment where a child is upset when the parent leaves but is easily comforted upon their return.

Resistant Attachment

A type of attachment characterized by inconsistent responses, where the child is upset upon the parent's departure and may resist comfort upon their return.

Avoidant Attachment

A type of attachment where the child is not bothered by the parent's departure and does not seek comfort upon their return.

Disorganized Attachment

A type of attachment resulting from abusive or neglectful parenting, where the child shows confused behavior towards the parent.

Erikson's Identity Development

• As children grow and learn, they form a sense of identity.

• Erikson proposed that people face age-related psychosocial challenges throughout life.

• Each stage’s challenge helps develop skills and attitudes needed to handle future stages successfully.

Psychosocial Challenges

The challenges at each stage of Erikson's theory that provide skills and attitudes needed for future challenges.

Symptoms of Aging

• Deterioration: The body and mind start deteriorating slowly at about age 50.

• Brain Changes: Frontal lobes shrink

Elderly contributions

Many older adults work productively well past their 70s.

Common misconceptions about aging

Older adults are more likely to be depressed.

Five Psychological Stages of Facing Death (DABDA)

1. Denial

2. Anger

3. Bargaining

4. Depression

5. Acceptance

End of Life Options

1. Strive for survival

2. Discontinue treatment

3. Let another decide

4. CA Death with Dignity.