Sociology Final Exam

Weeks 8-15

The State - Weber

a human community that claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory

• A compulsory association with a territorial basis”— once you are in, you cannot resist.

• Inside resistance is often met with sheer force.

Two types of state power according to Michael Mann

Despotic Power: military or police, as state agents, using physical force. Here “coercion” is key!

Infrastructural Power: state ability to infiltrate and influence our daily lives without the use of physical force. 

Charles Tilly State Formation

He argues that “wars” and “capital accumulation” make states. 

• States emerge as coercive enterprises, like organized crime, where leaders taxed citizens to fund wars and protect against threats, often created by the state itself.

• War and taxation became crucial to the development of centralized bureaucracies, marking the transition from private armies to state-controlled military forces.

critisized for oversimplifying the state formation by ignoring other important factors such as ideology (e.g., nationalism, religion, etc.) and revolution.

Government vs State

Government: often confused with the state, refers to the specific regime in power at a given time, which can change

State: a network of organizations that interact and hold varying levels of autonomy.

• In the United States, power alternates between political parties, but the state endures regardless of which party is in control.

• Government is temporary; the state’s organizations and functions persist over time.

Elements of the state

• Administrative bureaucracy: manages the day-to-day affairs of the state and is responsible for policy implementation.

• Military and police: manage the “coercive” powers of the state, controlling violence and enforcing the state’s will

• Judiciary: Laws. The independence of the judiciary is critical in balancing power within the state. Courts can check the powers of the executive branch.

• Subcentral governments and legislators: The state includes subcentral governments and legislative bodies that exercise independent power, connect local and central interests, and provide democratic checks on the executive.

Nation vs State

Nation: A nation refers to a shared culture, identity, and a possible collective desire for political self-determination.

State: a legal entity, composed of organizations controlling a specific territory recognized by other states.

Nation-State: arises when national unity aligns with territorial boundaries (e.g., the U.S. is a nation-state).

Different Forms of nation-state

• Democracy: a political system in which the opportunity to participate in decision-making is widely shared among adult citizens.

• Totalitarianism: complete control over political and social life by the state, often using terror and propaganda to maintain power. - Nazi Germany

• Authoritarianism: while less extreme than totalitarianism, still relies on centralized control and often suppresses civil society. 

  • often rely on bureaucratic and technological structures to repress citizens, such as surveillance and censorship.

Types of Democracy

• Direct democracy involves citizens directly participating in decision-making processes (very rare now).

• Representative democracy is the most common form in modern states, where citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf.

• Liberal democracy (a form of representative democracy) emphasizes the protection of individual freedoms, such as freedom of speech, assembly, and property ownership.

Pluralist Perspective

Pluralism describes a political system where diverse voluntary groups (parties, professional associations, religious organizations, advocacy groups) compete to influence state decisions. The state functions as an impartial arbitrator, mediating among these interests rather than dominating them.

• Through ongoing negotiation and response to group demands, the state maintains social order and builds consensus.

• state is neutral with no independent interests

The Elite Perspective

Argues that society is shaped by a small ruling elite that controls major bureaucratic institutions. The state’s main function is to preserve this elite dominance, with power rooted in managerial control of large organizations rather than in property ownership.

• Elites operate independent from the masses, gaining power through expertise, hierarchy, and control of resources. They are not unified and often compete with one another. They maintain dominance by shaping information and influencing public opinion.

Class-Based Theory

Class-based theory, rooted in Marxism, argues that the state is shaped by the capitalist economic system and exists to maintain and reproduce class inequality. Through laws, institutions, and ideology, the state upholds the dominance of the capitalist class, relying on coercion and ideological control rather than genuine consensus.

Critiques of Pluralism

• Viability: Critics argue that while individuals may be members of voluntary organizations, real participation is limited, reducing pluralism's effectiveness.

• Harmony of Interest: Pluralism assumes a basic consensus on core values, but when consensus is absent, societal paralysis or conflict may result.

• Difficulty for New Organizations: New groups often struggle to enter the political process due to limited resources, weakening the inclusivity of pluralism.

• Iron Law of Oligarchy: Organizations tend to become centralized, controlled by a few leaders, which undermines the democratic ideals of pluralism.

• Resource Limitation: Groups with fewer resources are often disadvantaged in influencing the state, contradicting the idea of equal competition in pluralism.

Social Change

Transformation of institutions, norms, and relationships 

Triggered by dramatic events, environmental pressures, technological innovation or collective action

• Environmental and Population Pressures (climate change)

• Cultural and Technological Innovation (Internet, Surrogacy)

• Cultural Diffusion (colonialism, Americanization)  

Social Movement Methods

• Peaceful Social Movements: may include signing petitions, kneeling during national anthems, or donating money to support a cause.

• Disruptive methods: can involve rioting and violent actions aimed at overthrowing regimes or systems of power.

Three Types of Social Movements

• Reform movements: Targeting certain policies/practices while leaving the broader structure intact. Ex. Abolitionist movement, women’s rights movement, etc.,.

• Countermovement: Collective action aims to undo or counteract the changes brought about by a previous form of collective action - white lives matter/white nationalism, pro life

• Revolutionary movements: Seek to completely overthrow the existing political system and replace it with an entirely new one – French revolution 

The Driving Forces Behind Social Movements

Arise when individuals feel frustrated/discontented with their conditions, viewing them as a result of society’s failure to meet their needs.

• When attempts to work within the system fail, they recognize that collective action is necessary to drive change.

Key Factors for Movement to Emerge

• Ideology – provides moral purpose and distinguishes friends/enemies and defines goals 

• Relative deprivation – movements often rise during improving conditions not worst 

• Resource mobilization – need funding, leadership, media access 

• Political opportunity – opening in political system make mobilization easier  

 

Nation

• Nation is a named human community that:

• Lives in a perceived homeland,

• Shares common myths,

• Enjoys a distinct public culture, and

• Has a collective laws and customs.

• France, for example, has a defined territory, a unified legal system, a shared language (French), and a strong cultural identity.

Objective vs Subjective Definitions of a Nation

Objective: focus on tangible elements like language, territory, and culture.

• However, this view can exclude certain groups who don’t meet all “objective” criteria yet identify as nations, such as nations with multilingual populations like Switzerland

Subjective: Highlight perception and shared sentiment.

• This approach can sometimes include too broad a range of communities, like tribes or regions, which might have shared sentiments but aren’t necessarily nations.

Nation vs Ethnie

Ethnie: An ethnic group or community:

• Bound by shared ancestry,

• Cultural elements (like language or religion),

• And historical memories.

However, it may lack political goals or a unified public culture. In addition, it doesn’t necessarily reside in its ancestral homeland. 

The Kurds serve as a strong example of an “ethnie”

Nation: Includes political goals – autonomy, unity 

Nationalism as a sociopolitical movement

A sociopolitical movement like others in structure, strategies, and mobilization techniques, but distinct in its focus on fostering and expressing a shared cultural identity.

Nationalism as an Ideology

Emphasizes a deep connection to the nation’s culture by reviving its language, literature, arts, crafts, music, and traditional practices.

3 goals of nationalism

• National autonomy: This involves a desire for the nation to be self-governing and free from external control.

  • The Indian independence movement sought to free India from British colonial rule

• National unity: Seeks to create a sense of unity among people who identify as part of the nation, developing a shared identity and purpose.

• National identity: creating a shared cultural identity that distinguishes one nation from others. National identity often includes elements like language, culture, and historical symbols.

  • ex: the French Revolution developed a strong national identity based on shared values of liberty and equality

Globalism vs Globalization

A condition of worldwide interconnection and interdependence, shaped by flows of capital, goods, information, ideas, and environmental and biological factors.

Globalization and deglobalization refer to the increase or decline of “globalism”.

Friedman’s globalization phases

Globalization 1.0 (1492 - 1800)

•World shrank from large to medium.

•Driven by countries globalizing for resources and conquest.

Globalization 2.0 (1800 - 2000)

•World shrank from medium to small.

•Spearheaded by companies globalizing for markets and labor.

Globalization 3.0 (2000 - present)

•World shrinks from small to tiny.

•Driven by individuals and small groups.

•Non-Western countries play a significant role.

Globalism as European product

Globalization has often been viewed through a Eurocentric lens, framing European history as the origin and model for the world. This perspective elevates the EuroAmerican experience as universal and has been used to justify the harm caused by colonization in pursuit of European ideals.

World Systems Theory

•This theory, which is very critical of the capitalist system, DOES NOT see globalization as a recent phenomenon but, rather, as synonymous with the 16th century birth of world capitalism. 

Divides the world into:

• Core: Highly developed and powerful countries. Examples: United States, Japan

• Periphery: Less developed countries, often exploited for labor and resources, historically colonized. Examples: Nigeria, Bangladesh, Democratic Republic of Congo.

• Semi-Periphery: Intermediate countries, sometimes former cores or rising economies, serving as a buffer. Examples: Brazil, Mexico, South Africa, India, China, Turkey, Indonesia.

The Network Society Theory

Views globalization as driven by technological change and the “information age,” emphasizing networks over capitalism. Its rise stems from two processes: the development of new information technologies (informationalism) and the use of information by capitalists to create a “new economy” (techno-capitalism). Critics often accuse it of technological determinism.

Cultural Globalization

The rapid, global spread of ideas, symbols, and practices—such as languages, music, and images—beyond political and economic dimensions, reflecting the intensified flow of culture worldwide.

Pessimistic Hyperglobalizers

Argue that globalization is ending the diversity of the world’s cultures.

• The world is moving toward a homogenized popular culture, namely Western culture.

• They view the proliferation of Western norms and lifestyles as signs of “Westernization” or “Americanization” of the world.

Optimistic Hyperglobalizers

Agree that cultural globalization generates more sameness, but, unlike pessimistic hyperglobalizers, don’t consider this as a negative thing.

• They believe that the Westernization of the world in terms of values and lifestyles, means the expansion of democracy and free markets.

McDonaldization as Cultural Homogenization

George Ritzer’s concept explaining how global cultural practices become standardized, spreading consumer culture and eroding local traditions, often met with local cultural resistance.

Sushi as Cultural Globalization

• Global spread driven by Japanese economic growth, healthy cuisine trends, and aesthetic appeal.

• Japanese demand for bluefin tuna created international markets, transforming the fishing industry and fostering global collaboration (e.g., Spanish laborers, Japanese supervisors, Norwegian/Holland imports, American researchers).

• Sushi remains a symbol of Japanese culture; authentic preparation adds prestige and justifies premium pricing, with Japanese chefs maintaining expertise worldwide.

Glocalization

The process by which global cultural products or practices are adapted to fit local cultures, creating a blend of global and local influences. Example: McDonald’s menus tailored to local tastes (e.g., Teriyaki Burger in Japan, McSpicy Paneer in India).

Defining Religion

• Substantive Approach: Emphasizing belief, sacredness, and the presence of a religious community. Primarily applies to traditional forms of religion, often overlooking newer or non-traditional practices.

• Functional Approach: Defines religion by its social or psychological role—what it does rather than what it is. Focuses on helping people understand the meaning of life. Criticized for overlooking the supernatural aspects of belief.

• Symbolic Approach: Focuses on the role of symbols in religion. Religious (macro) symbols help individuals understand life’s deeper meaning, while non-religious (micro) symbols guide everyday communication.

Religion according to Durkheim

Religion is created by society, not the supernatural. It builds community and cohesion. Magic also has beliefs and rites, but it’s individual and utilitarian, lacking social unity — which is why there is no “church of magic.”

secularization theory

Secularization theory argues that under modernity, religion loses its social, cultural, and political significance. Rooted in Enlightenment ideals of empirical, provable knowledge, it predicted religion would fade into personal meaning only. Though widely accepted for decades, the theory was later challenged when religion resurged in public and political life in the late 20th century.

re-sacralization

Instead of declining, religion stayed influential in public and political life. Events like the Iranian Revolution, Catholic activism in Latin America, and the rise of Protestant fundamentalism in the U.S. showed that religion remained a powerful global force.

Religion in American Politics

• Post-9/11: Bush framed events as “good vs. evil,” fueling a holy-war narrative.

• Rhetoric linked Islam to terrorism, increasing Islamophobia and hate crimes.

• Trump’s support explained by: economic worry, racism, Islamophobia, anti-immigration views, and Christian nationalism.

• Christian nationalism: parallels America with biblical Israel; emphasizes cultural and racial purity; historically exclusionary.

Weber view on religion

Religion matters because it shapes how people think and act. Weber said religious beliefs encouraged hard work, self-discipline, and saving money, which helped capitalism grow. Religion can cause social change

Marx view on religion

As an economic and political problem that provides false comfort and distracts from material conditions and class exploitation. a tool for oppression

Absolutist Deviance

• categorize behaviors as inherently “good” or “bad”, independent of societal norms or subjective judgments (the focus is ‘what is committed’).

• This view often leads to strong emotional reactions and stereotyping, framing deviants as fundamentally different from others and unworthy of societal inclusion'

• relies on oversimplified stereotypes

Relativist Deviance

• socially constructed rather than inherent in any act, belief, or condition (who, where, when).

• what is considered deviant varies across cultures, societies, and groups, as deviance is shaped by collective human judgments and ideas.

Deviance requires 3 things

• A behavioral expectation or norm.

• A perceived violation of that norm.

• A societal reaction, which can range from criticism to punishment.

What are the four major theories of deviance?

• Strain theory

• Symbolic Interactionism

• Labeling theory

• Deterrence Theory

Strain Theory

deviance arises when individuals face a conflict between societal success goals and limited access to legitimate means, leading to violence, crime, or withdrawal from societal norms, as seen during economic recessions.

Symbolic Interactionism

Deviance is learned through interactions with close associates, such as friends and family, who influence behavior by transmitting techniques and attitudes for committing deviant acts.

Labeling Theory

• Being labeled “deviant” alters how others perceive and interact with an individual, leading to rejection, mistrust, and stigmatization.

• Such labels, like “ex-convict” or “mental patient”, overgeneralize and often permanently affect the labeled person’s life, regardless of their current behavior or circumstances.

The Deterrence Theory

• The deterrence theory assumes people are rational decision-makers who weigh the costs and benefits of their actions. Effective deterrence requires punishment to be swift, certain, and severe.

However…

• The death penalty often fails to deter crime due to lengthy delays (average 15.5 years on death row) and lack of certainty in execution.

• Violent crimes are frequently impulsive or influenced by passion, drugs, or alcohol, limiting rational cost-benefit calculations.

Conflict Theory

Argues that definitions of deviance often reflect the influence of powerful groups imposing control over less powerful groups, shaping societal norms and responses.

• Capitalism’s drive for profit, mechanization, and job relocation contributes to poverty/deviance. Its push for high consumption but low wages can lead to crime. conflict theory argues these problems are built into capitalism and can’t be solved through full employment.

• legal and criminal justice system benefit elite

• Powerful groups shape law enforcement priorities, directing resources toward certain forms of deviance while overlooking others to protect their own interests.
  

Media and Deviance

Dominant groups use media to shape crime perceptions, spotlighting violent street crime while downplaying corporate or governmental crime. TV overrepresents violent offenses, skewing public understanding of what crime actually looks like.

Tough on Crime Policies

Many Americans see the justice system as too lenient, driving harsher sentences, less parole, and more prisons. U.S. incarceration rose from under 200,000 in 1970 to ~2.1 million today—reflecting punitive policies, not more crime or inherently “evil” people.

Who are the deviants?

Poor people and communities of color are disproportionately labeled deviant. Economic disadvantages—like inability to pay fines or bail—and inadequate legal representation worsen these inequities, leading to harsher justice outcomes.

Police Bias

Policing deepens inequities: marginalized communities face increased surveillance and fear. Black and poor urban individuals are stereotyped as “typical criminals,” leading to racial profiling, excessive force, and systemic bias, as highlighted by high-profile police violence cases.

White collar deviance

Wealthy individuals and corporations often face lenient punishment, as seen in “affluenza” cases. Public attention underestimates white-collar crimes, which—through fraud, environmental harm, and unsafe workplaces—cause far greater economic and human costs than street crimes.

• Corporations often escape consequences via deferred prosecution agreements. Fines for violations are minor compared to profits, allowing companies to treat penalties as a cost of doing business and continue harmful practices.

Medicalization of Deviance

• deviant behaviors redefined as medical/psychiatric conditions.

• Rise in diagnosed mental disorders; behaviors once seen as mischief now treated medically.

• Drug companies influence diagnoses and promote pharmaceutical solutions.

• Offers individualized, therapeutic solutions, reducing moral judgment and stigma.

• Critics: depoliticizes deviance, oversimplifies human emotions, and can label dissent as mental illness.

• Protects dominant groups by diverting attention from systemic issues and limiting social change.

Colonial origins of sociology

sociology institutionalized during the height of European colonialism, canonical thinkers (Marx, Durkheim, Weber) were shaped by colonial assumptions 

Colonial difference and knowledge

race used to justify hierarchy, colonized societies seen as starting points for understanding social evolution  

Coloniality of time and being

Framed non-Western peoples as “primitive” or “sub-human.”

• Coloniality of time means imposing one dominant timeline of progress, often Western, that marks other societies as late or behind while disregarding their own temporal rhythms.

• Coloniality of being means defining legitimate human existence through Western standards, making other identities and ways of living seem inferior, incomplete, or not fully “modern.”

• These epistemic and ontological divisions became common-sense.

decolonial sociology

• Goes beyond a global perspective; critiques colonial logics in “global” studies.

• Not just about race; connects race to the colonial matrix of power.

• Emphasizes diverse epistemologies and agency, especially in the Global South.

• Promotes horizontal dialogue across knowledge traditions.

• Ongoing project of critical reflection and societal transformation.

Public Sociology

Engages sociology with civil society to foster dialogue on societal issues.

• Coined and popularized by Michael Burawoy in his 2004 ASA presidential address.

Buraway’s 4 sociologies

• Professional Sociology: Academic research and theory.

• Policy Sociology: Applied sociology serving clients.

• Critical Sociology: Challenges foundational assumptions.

• Public Sociology: Dialogues with non-academic audiences.

Global Sociology

• Extends public sociology to address global inequalities and marketization.

• Bridging local and global dynamics.

Criticism of Buraway’s Framework

• Too much focus on reflexive sociology:

It downplays the rigor and importance of professional sociology. Brint warns that public sociology could marginalize professional sociology and create conflict among the four sociologies instead of balance.

• Political bias:

Public sociology often aligns with left-liberal views, risking partisanship.

• Idealizing civil society:

Civil society isn’t always positive—it also includes inequality and power struggles.

Buraways defense to criticism

• Interdependence of Four Sociologies:

  • Burawoy’s vision stresses mutual accountability and dynamic interconnections.

  • Professional sociology remains central but must support other sociologies.

• Public Sociology’s Role:

  • Advocates for democracy and public discourse.

  • Navigates challenges of commodification and regulation in academia.

• Global Expansion:

  • Shifting focus to address global marketization and inequalities.

Brint’s counterarguments to Buraway’s defense

• Professional Sociology’s Primacy:

  • Critiques Burawoy’s “faint heartbeat” metaphor for professional sociology.

  • Reaffirms the PhD as a research-centric degree.

• Activist Inclinations in Public Sociology:

  • Warns of public sociology becoming overly politicized.

  • Cautions against undermining the discipline’s objectivity and scientific rigor.

• Alternatives Proposed:

  • Greater focus on robust academic research and restrained activism.

Challenges and Implications of Public Sociology

• Challenge:

  • Navigating political biases and maintaining inclusivity.

  • Balancing academic rigor with societal engagement.

• Implications:

  • Maintaining unity amidst diverse orientations.

  • Avoiding marginalization of professional sociology.