Stage 2 Psychology: Science Inquiry Skills

Reasons for using observational design

Groups are pre-existing and IV is impossible, unethical, or too costly to manipulate

Advantages of observational research

• Increased external validity
• Allows you to see behavior as complex, the result of many antecedents
• Some behaviors can only be observed in a natural setting (such as vandalism)

Disadvantages of observational research

observer bias, ethical concerns, cannot draw causal conclusions

Correlational studies

a research method that examines how variables are naturally related in the real world, without any attempt by the researcher to alter them or assign causation between them, uses scatterplot to analyse data

Naturalistic observations

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

cross-sectional studies

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

sequential studies

research in which researchers examine a number of different age groups over several points in time

Independent Groups Design

An experimental design in which different groups of participants are exposed to different levels of the independent variable, such that each participant experiences only one level of the independent variable

Matched-Participants Design

An experimental design where participants are paired (matched) on the basis of similar characteristics that can influence the DV, with one pair being allocated to the experimental group and the other to the control group.

Repeated-Measures Design

An experiment using a within-groups design in which participants respond to a dependent variable more than once, after exposure to each level of the independent variable.

Longitudinal Study

Research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period - can be combined with any experimental design

Advantages of Independent Groups Design

+ Reduces demand characteristics
+ Quick to administer
+ Could be used for all tests
+ Prevents order effects

Disadvantages of Independent Groups Design

- Individual differences can occur
- Lots of participants are required
- More time consuming

Advantages of Matched-participants Design

+ Less possibility of demand characteristics
+ Prevents order effects
+ No individual differences

Disadvantages of Matched-participants design

- takes time
- High costs
- requires pre- test
- withdrawal of participant is a problem.

Twin studies

a common method of investigating whether nature or nurture affects behaviour - the ideal matched participants!

Advantages of Repeated Measures Design

+ Quick to administer
+ No individual differences
+Fewer Participants are required

Disadvantages of Repeated Measures Design

- High possibility of demand characteristics
- Order effects can occur
- Can't be used for all tests

Disadvantages of longitudinal studies

expensive, take a long time, and may lose participants over time

Advantages of longitudinal studies

- Can see changes over time
- Best way to track human development

behaviour

an observable or measurable action made by a person or animal

deconstruct

to break down into constituent parts; dissect; dismantle in order to analyse

design

Produce a detailed plan for testing a hypothesis or research question.

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated (or is a pre-existing difference); the variable whose effect is being studied.

dependent variable

The measurable effect, outcome, or response in which the research is interested. It 'depends' on the independent variable

operationalised variables

Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured

hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

operationalised hypothesis

A research hypothesis that states how the variables being studied will be observed, manipulated and measured.

extraneous variables

any variables other than the independent variable that seem likely to influence the dependent variable in a specific study e.g. participant, situational, placebo, experimenter

participant variables

individual differences in the personal characteristics of research participants that, if not controlled, can confound the results of the experiment.

placebo

A harmless pill, medicine, or procedure prescribed more for the psychological benefit to the patient than for any physiological effect.

placebo effect

the phenomenon in which the expectations of the participants in a study can influence their behaviour

single-blind trial

Occurs when research subjects do not know whether they are in the experimental group or the control group, but the researchers know this information - used to help mitigate the placebo effect

experimenter effect

changes in subjects' behaviour caused by the unintended influence of an experimenter's actions

double-blind trial

Neither the researchers or participant know if they are receiving a placebo or the actual treatment - used to help mitigate the experiment effect

demand characteristics

cues in an experiment that tell the participant what behaviour is expected

biased data

Data that have been distorted because of the way they were collected

unbiased data

Data that have been collected in appropriate manner without interference from extraneous variables

situational variables

features in the environment that participants might encounter e.g. weather, time of year, world events, community events

confounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that produced an effect in an experiment

research question

A question that can be answered by an experiment or series of experiments

features of a good hypothesis

- mention of IV
- mention of DV
- mention of direction of the effect
- mention of population

features of a good research question

- starts with what/how
- detailed

population

the entire group that is relevant to the study

sample

the group directly involved in the study

convenience sample

a form of sample using respondents who are convenient or readily accessible to the researcher—for example, employees, friends, or relatives

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

stratified sample

a sample drawn in such a way that known subgroups within a population are represented in proportion to their numbers in the general population

code of ethics

a formal statement of ethical principles and rules of conduct

cultural relativism

the practice of judging a culture by its own standards rather than those of another (usually dominant) culture

ethnocentrism

evaluation of other cultures based on the expectations of those found in ones own culture therefore creating bias toward others that do not comply

DSM

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

APS

Australian Psychological Society

integrity

honesty, high moral standards

voluntary participation

participation whereby participants agree to take part in an experiment free from pressure or fear of negative consequences

informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate including risks and discomfort and gaining signatures from participant and guardian if under 16/unable to consent themselves

deception only when necessary

a researcher may only mislead subjects when the integrity of the research depends on the subjects being ignorant of the true nature of the research. Obviously, deception can't cause harm and debriefing has to happen afterward.

adequate debriefing

participants have the right to know the results of the study, have services available to them for support, and opportunity to access published results

confidentiality

the act of holding information/photos/videos/data in confidence, not to be released to unauthorised individuals unless explicit permission is given

no psychological or physical harm

wellbeing of participants is paramount and should be protected at all costs

withdrawal rights

the freedom to discontinue participation in a study at any time, including removal of data

privacy

only information relevant to the study should be collected, participants should be aware how it will be stored and how long for

Aboriginal communication methods

nodding, saying yes when uncomfortable, eye contact avoidance, indirect questioning, storytelling, art, dance, music

Western communication methods

writing, keeping eye contact, direct questioning, speaking up when uncomfortable

culturally safe communication

free from slang, clear, acknowledging differences

physical safety

taking precautions to avoid injuring yourself or others

cultural safety

an environment in which individuals believe that their culture is valued and respected

emotional safety

security; willingness to reveal how one really feels