Exam I

apoptosis

“programmed” cell death, highly regulated at cellular level

two main pathways for apoptosis

mitochondrial (intrinsic) pathway

death receptor (extrinsic) pathway

necrosis

“accidental” cell death, usually due to the cell damage, resulting in contents leaking out

causes of cell damage

cells response to stress/injury

major pro-inflammatory

IL-6

IL-1beta

TNF-alpha

major anti-inflammatory

IL-1 ra

IL-4

IL-10

IL-6

-regulates heat/temp, can induce fever

-induces s fat and muscle cells to metabolize, make heat and raise the temperature in the infected tissue

IL-1beta

“master” inflammation regulator, released en masse by activated macrophages

TNF-alpha (tumor necrosis factor)

induce blood vessels to become more permeable, enabling effector cells and fluid containing soluble effector molecules to enter the infected tissue

IL-1ra

receptor antagonist - antagonise receptor to stop it from working

cytokines; what cells produce them

mol. secreted by immune cells that act as cell signals

helper T-cells & macrophages

calor

heat = inc. blood flow to injured tissue

dolor

pain = receptors activated/swelling

rubor

redness/color = capillary dilation

tumor

swelling = fluid accumulation leaking out of blood vessel

lymphocyte receptors

epitope

immunoglobulin

antibody

T-cell receptor

epitope

par of antigentic molcule that itneracts with Ab or receptor

immunoglobulin

surface receptor on B-cell

antibody

solubilized immunoglobulin

t-cell receptors

combined with CD4 or CD8

Natural killer cells

innate immunity

kill virus-infected cells

adaptive immuntiy

clonal selection

B-cells

T-cells

B- cells

produce antibodies (proteins)

T-cells

release AB (cytotoxic, helper)

cytotoxic

T cell that kill infected cells

helper

T cells that secrete cytokines after recognizing an infection

Cervical enlargement

C3-T1

Lumbar enlargement

~T11-L1

Conus medullaris

cone-shaped terminal portion of SC at L1-L2

Cauda equina

“horse tail” nerves extending past conus medullaris in lumbar & sacral regions

dorsal horns

interneurons (=afferent)

ventral horns

somatic motor neurons (=efferent)

ascending tracts

sensory information

descending tracts

motor infomration

Funiculi

Bundles of white matter in the spinal cord

decaussation

neurons cross over to the other side of spinal cord (or brain)

dermatome

sensory info coming into one spinal root

myotome

motor info coming out of one spinal root

C5

D: lateral shoulder and upper arm

M: shoulder abduction and external rotation

Axillary nerve

C6

D: Lateral forearm, thumb, and index finger

M: elbow flexion and wrist extension

Musculocutaneous & Radial nerves

C7

D: middle finger and central palm/back of hand

M: elbow extension and wrist flexion

Radial nerve

C8

D: ring finger, pinky finger, medial hand/wrist

M: finger flexion (making a fist)

Median and Ulnar nerves

T1

D: medial (inner) forearm and arm

M: finger abduction and adduction)

Ulnar nerve

T3-5

chest wall for breathing

D -T4: Nipple line

M- intercostal muscles

T6-8

chest & abdomen

M- Abdominal wall muscles

T9-12

chest & lower back

D - T10: umbilicus, T12: groin region

M – abdominal wall muscles

nerves for the torso

Intercostal nerves (T2-T11) and subcostal nerve (T12)

Epidural

analgesic - removes apin sensation but doesn’t prevent all sensation

Spinal block

anesthetic - cutt off pain & sensation

Brachial Plexus

-major set of nerves in axilla

-supplies arm, shoulder

roots

C5-T1

trunks

upper, middle, lower

division

trunks divide and reconnect

Cords

Lateral, Medial, Posterior

axillary nerve

C5/C6 root

posterior cord

musculocutaneous nerve

C5-C7 root

lateral cord

Radial Nerve

C5-T1 root

posterior cord

Median Nerve

____ roots

stem: medial & lateral cords

ulnar nerve

C8-T1 root

medial cord

axillary nerve innervation

deltoid, teres minor

radial nerve innervation

triceps brachii, brachioradialis, forearm extensors

median nerve innervations

Most anterior forearm flexors, deep forearm flexors, thenar muscles, lateral two lumbricals

ulnar nerve innervation

flexor carpi ulnaris, medial half of flexor digitorum profundus, intrinsic hand muscles

musculocutaneous nerve innervation

biceps brachii, coracobrachialis, brachialis,

axillary somatosensory info

regimental badge area on upper lateral arm

radialis somatosensory info

posterior aspect of upper limb, dorsal (back side of hand

median somatosensory info

palmer side of hand

• anterior forearms, muscles of digits of palm

ulnar somatosensory info

palmer side of hand

musculocutaneous somatosensory info

lateral (outer aspect of forearm)

axillary nerve injuries

Severe weakness in shoulder abduction, weakness in shoulder external rotation, deltoid muscle atrophy

musculocuotaneous injuries

weakness of elbow flexion and forearm supination; weakened shoulder flexion

median nerve injuries

benediction — fist

OK sign — AIN

carpal tunnel — pain, weakness

ulnar nerve inujuries

claw — unopposed extensors

radial nerve injuries

wrist drop

phrenic nerve; spinal roots

motor to diaphragm

C3, 4, 5

Blood brain barrier

Tightly regulated, semipermeable border of cells that separates circulating blood from the brain and CNS extracellular fluid

multiple sclerosis; most common type

demyelinating autoimmune disease

relapsing-remitting MS

myelin; which cells produced

modified plasma membrane dense with lipids/proteins

oligodendrocytes (CNS) and schwann cells (PNS)

ischemic stroke

atherosclerosis

thrombosis

hemmorhagic stroke

aneurysm

circle of willis

base of brain, connects internal carotid artery pathways with vertebral artery pathways

main arterires that supply blood to brain

anterior CA, middle CA, posterior CA

cause of Alzheimer’s disease

amyloid beta plaques and tau tangles

therapies or treatments for Alzhiemer’s

symptoms of Parkinson’s disease

• rigid muscles

• involuntary tremors

• akinesia

• poor balance/posture

• speech, swallowing, gait impairment