Global Politics II

Power (Core Concept)

The ability to affect others to achieve desired outcomes; can be through coercion (hard power), attraction (soft power), or a combination (smart power). Central to all political interactions.

Hard Power

Achieving aims through coercion, using military force or economic sanctions/inducements. Often associated with Realism.

Soft Power

Achieving aims through attraction and persuasion rather than coercion, using culture, political values, and foreign policies. Coined by Joseph Nye.

Smart Power

Combining hard and soft power resources into effective strategies. Coined by Joseph Nye.

Sharp Power

Using manipulative diplomatic tools by authoritarian powers to pierce the political or information environments of target countries (e.g., disinformation). Distinct from soft power's appeal.

Structural Power

The power to shape and determine the structures of the global political economy within which other states, institutions, and actors must operate. (Susan Strange).

Sovereignty (Core Concept)

The principle of supreme and independent authority over a territory and its population, free from external interference. The organizing principle of the Westphalian state system.

Westphalian Sovereignty

The principle that each state has exclusive sovereignty over its territory, based on mutual recognition and non interference in domestic affairs. Established by the Peace of Westphalia (1648).

Internal Sovereignty

A state's supreme authority within its own borders over its population and territory.

External Sovereignty

A state's independence from outside authorities and its right to conduct foreign relations freely; based on mutual recognition by other states.

Pooled Sovereignty

When states voluntarily share or delegate some sovereign powers to a common international entity (like the EU) to achieve shared goals.

Legitimacy (Core Concept)

The belief that a rule, institution, or leader has the right to govern; transforms power into authority. Sources include consent, tradition, effectiveness, adherence to norms/laws.

Interdependence (Core Concept)

Mutual reliance between states and other actors, creating shared interests and vulnerabilities (economic, security, environmental). Challenges sovereignty, may foster cooperation.

Complex Interdependence

Theory (Keohane & Nye) highlighting multiple channels of interaction between societies (not just state to state), multiple issues (not just security), and reduced role of military force.

State (Actor)

A political legal unit with a defined territory, permanent population, effective government, and sovereignty. Primary actors in Realism.

Nation (Concept)

A group of people sharing a common identity based on culture, language, history, ethnicity, etc. May or may not have their own state.

Nation State (Concept)

A state whose territory corresponds to that occupied by a particular nation, and whose population shares a sense of national identity. The ideal type, rare in practice.

IGOs (Intergovernmental Organizations)

Formal organizations established by states through treaties (e.g., UN, WTO, NATO, EU). Facilitate cooperation, set norms, possess legal identity separate from member states.

NGOs (Non Governmental Organizations)

Private, non profit, voluntary organizations operating independently from government, focused on specific issues (e.g., human rights, environment, development). Roles: advocacy, monitoring, service delivery.

MNCs (Multinational Corporations)

For profit enterprises operating in multiple countries. Wield significant economic power, influence state policies, engage in global trade and investment.

Anarchy (System Structure)

The absence of a central, overarching authority in the international system. Does not necessarily mean chaos, but a system of self help. Core assumption of Realism and Liberalism.

Westphalian System

The modern state system originating from the Peace of Westphalia (1648), based on sovereign states, territorial integrity, and non interference.

Multiplexity

Concept (Acharya) describing a global order with multiple types of actors (states, IGOs, NGOs, MNCs, etc.), diverse forms of power, and interconnectedness across different levels and regions. More complex than simple polarity.

Realism (Theory)

Views global politics as a struggle for power among self interested states in an anarchic system. Emphasizes security, national interest, and skepticism about cooperation.

Statism (Realism)

The idea that the state is the main actor in international relations and holds supreme authority.

Survival (Realism)

The primary goal of states in the anarchic international system, requiring them to maintain their security.

Self help (Realism)

The principle that states must rely on their own resources and capabilities to ensure their security, as there is no higher authority to protect them.

Security Dilemma (Realism)

When actions taken by one state to increase its security (e.g., military build up) are perceived as threatening by other states, leading them to respond similarly, resulting in decreased security for all.

Balance of Power (Realism)

A situation where states' power is distributed such that no single state can dominate others. Can occur naturally or through deliberate state policies (alliances).

Liberalism (Theory)

Emphasizes cooperation, interdependence, institutions, and shared values (like democracy and human rights) as key factors in global politics. Optimistic about peace and progress.

Institutions / Regimes (Liberalism)

Formal organizations (IGOs) and sets of rules, norms, and procedures (regimes) that facilitate cooperation, manage interdependence, and mitigate anarchy.

Democratic Peace Theory (Liberalism)

The idea that democratic states are less likely to go to war with other democratic states.

Absolute Gains (Liberalism)

States prioritize maximizing their own total gains, even if others also gain, allowing for positive sum cooperation. Contrasts with relative gains.

Relative Gains (Realism)

States prioritize gaining more power than their rivals, even if absolute gains are smaller, viewing international relations as a zero sum game.

Constructivism (Theory)

Emphasizes the role of shared ideas, norms, identities, and social interaction in shaping actors' interests and behaviour. Argues that reality is socially constructed.

Social Construction (Constructivism)

The process through which actors' interactions and shared understandings create the structures, norms, and identities that shape global politics.

Norms (Constructivism)

Shared standards of appropriate behaviour for actors with a given identity. Can shape state interests and actions (e.g., norm against chemical weapons use).

Identity (Constructivism)

Actors' understanding of who they are, which shapes their interests and behaviour. Identities are socially constructed and can change.

Intersubjectivity (Constructivism)

Shared understandings, meanings, and expectations between actors that shape their interactions and perceptions.

Critical Theories (General Approach)

Theories that critique mainstream approaches, expose power structures and inequalities, and often aim for social or political transformation (e.g., Marxism, Feminism, Post colonialism).

Marxism (Critical Theory)

Analyzes global politics through the lens of class struggle, capitalism, and economic exploitation. Critiques the state as an instrument of the ruling class.

Post colonialism (Critical Theory)

Examines the enduring legacies of colonialism and imperialism, focusing on power imbalances, cultural hegemony, race, and the perspectives of the Global South. Critiques Eurocentrism.

Feminism (Critical Theory)

Analyzes how gender shapes global politics, focusing on gender inequality, patriarchal structures, and the experiences of women and marginalized genders.

Capitalism (Framework)

Economic system based on private ownership, markets, and profit motive. Dominant global system, central to development and inequality debates.

Universalism (Framework)

Belief in universal human nature and values that transcend cultural or national boundaries. Often associated with human rights discourse.

Relativism (Framework)

Belief that values are culturally or individually determined, challenging the idea of universal norms or truths. Often arises in human rights debates (cultural relativism).

NGO Definition (Lewis)

Formal, private, non profit, self governing, voluntary organizations concerned with development, human rights, and social change.

NGO Definition (World Bank)

Private organizations pursuing activities to relieve suffering, promote interests of the poor, protect environment, provide social services, or undertake community development.

NGO Definition (UN/ngo.org)

Non profit, voluntary citizens' group (local, national, international); task oriented, common interest; service/humanitarian functions, bring concerns to governments, advocate/monitor policies, encourage participation.

NGO Roles: Implementers

Provide services directly or indirectly.

NGO Roles: Catalysts

Advocacy, innovation, watchdogs.

NGO Roles: Partners

Collaborate with other entities (governments, businesses, etc.).

NGO Legitimacy Factors

Representativeness, Means (non violent), Efficacy.

Political Party (Definition)

Formal organization seeking benefits derived from public office by gaining representation in elections. (Strom)

Political Party Functions (Gunther & Diamond)

Candidate nomination, electoral mobilization, issue structuring, societal representation, interest aggregation (bringing different interests together), forming/sustaining governments, social integration.

Rights (Contested Meaning)

Basic claims and entitlements one should possess by virtue of being human. Debates over source (natural vs. legal/positive), scope, universality vs. cultural relativism.

Justice (Contested Meaning)

Fairness and accountability. Includes distributive, corrective, procedural, restorative, transitional, environmental justice concepts.

Liberty (Contested Meaning)

Freedom and autonomy. Positive liberty (freedom *to*) vs. Negative liberty (freedom *from*). Debates on scope and limits.

Equality (Contested Meaning)

Principle of equal status, rights, opportunities. Debates over types (economic, social, legal, gender, racial) and equality vs. equity.

Equity

Fairness achieved by adjusting for disadvantages to ensure equal opportunity/outcome; recognizes different starting points.

Human Rights (Definition)

Rights inherent to all human beings, regardless of status. Universal, inalienable, indivisible, interdependent.

First Generation Rights (Civil/Political)

Focus on individual liberty and protection from state interference (e.g., right to life, free speech, fair trial, vote). *Negative rights* requiring state restraint. (18th C origin).

Second Generation Rights (Economic/Social/Cultural)

Focus on equality and access to essential social goods (e.g., right to education, health, work, social security). *Positive rights* requiring state action. (19th to 20th C origin).

Third Generation Rights (Collective/Solidarity)

Focus on rights held by groups/peoples (e.g., right to self determination, development, healthy environment, peace). Often require international cooperation. (Late 20th C origin).

Indivisibility of Human Rights

Principle that all human rights (civil, political, economic, social, cultural) are interconnected and equally important; one cannot be fully enjoyed without the others.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)

Foundational UN document (1948) outlining fundamental human rights. Not legally binding but highly influential standard setting document.

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)

Legally binding UN treaty (1966/1976) codifying first generation rights.

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR)

Legally binding UN treaty (1966/1976) codifying second generation rights.

International Bill of Human Rights

Comprises the UDHR, ICCPR, and ICESCR.

International Humanitarian Law (IHL)

Law of armed conflict/war. Limits effects of conflict, protects non combatants & those hors de combat, restricts means/methods of warfare. Distinct from but related to HR law.

Geneva Conventions (1949)

Four core IHL treaties protecting wounded/sick soldiers (land/sea), prisoners of war, and civilians in wartime.

Common Article 3 (Geneva Conventions)

Applies fundamental IHL protections in non international armed conflicts (internal conflicts).

War Crimes

Grave breaches of IHL committed during armed conflict (e.g., targeting civilians, torture of POWs, using prohibited weapons).

Crimes Against Humanity

Widespread or systematic attacks against a civilian population (e.g., murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation, torture, rape) committed during peace or war.

Genocide

Acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial, or religious group. Defined by the 1948 Genocide Convention.

UN Human Rights Council (UNHRC)

Main UN intergovernmental body (47 states) responsible for promoting/protecting HR. Conducts Universal Periodic Review (UPR).

Universal Periodic Review (UPR)

UNHRC mechanism where human rights records of all UN member states are reviewed by peers every 4 to 5 years.

Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR)

UN Secretariat office leading HR efforts, providing expertise, supporting monitoring mechanisms.

International Court of Justice (ICJ / World Court)

Principal UN judicial organ; settles legal disputes *between states*. Jurisdiction based on state consent.

International Criminal Court (ICC)

Independent permanent court; prosecutes *individuals* for genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, aggression. Based on Rome Statute (1998/2002). Court of last resort.

Regional Human Rights Systems

Courts/commissions enforcing regional HR treaties (e.g., European Court of HR, Inter American Court of HR, African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights). Vary in strength/scope.

Universalism vs. Cultural Relativism (HR Debate)

Conflict over whether human rights are universal standards applicable everywhere or if they should be interpreted relative to local cultures and values.

Individual vs. Collective Rights (HR Debate)

Which takes precedence? How are they balanced?

Sovereignty vs. Intervention (HR Debate)

When (if ever) can/should states or IGOs intervene to protect HR in another state? (R2P, Humanitarian Intervention).

Politicization of Human Rights

Using human rights discourse or actions for strategic political advantage rather than purely humanitarian motives; often involves double standards.

Codification, Protection, Monitoring (HR)

How are rights defined, safeguarded, and compliance checked? Role of different actors.

Impunity

Failure to bring perpetrators of HR violations to justice.

Responsibility to Protect (R2P)

Norm holding that states must protect their populations from mass atrocities, and if they fail, the international community has a responsibility to intervene (diplomatically, economically, or militarily as a last resort).

Humanitarian Intervention

Coercive interference (often military) in a state without its consent to address massive human rights violations. Legally and politically controversial.

Peace (Contested Meaning)

State of non violence, stability, harmony. Absence of war, but also potentially absence of structural/cultural violence.

Negative Peace

Absence of direct, physical violence or war. (Galtung)

Positive Peace

Absence of direct violence AND structural/cultural violence; presence of justice, equality, harmony, and conditions for human flourishing. (Galtung)

Structural Violence

Indirect harm caused by social, political, or economic structures/institutions that create inequality and prevent people from meeting basic needs. (Galtung)

Cultural Violence

Aspects of culture (beliefs, norms, symbols) that justify or legitimize direct or structural violence. (Galtung)

Conflict (Contested Meaning)

A perceived incompatibility of goals, ideas, interests, or values between two or more parties. Can be non violent or violent.

Direct Violence

Physical or psychological harm inflicted directly by an actor.

War

Intentional, widespread, long duration armed conflict between states or organized groups, governed by IHL.

Terrorism

Use or threat of violence, especially against civilians, to create fear and achieve political, religious, or ideological goals. Definition is contested.

Conflict Prevention

Diplomatic/structural measures aimed at stopping disputes from escalating into violent conflict.

Peacemaking

Efforts (diplomacy, mediation, negotiation, judicial settlement) to bring hostile parties to agreement.