psych final

Learning is defined as "the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring ________ or _______."

information; behaviors

Two forms of associative learning are classical conditioning, in which the organism associates ________, and operant condition, in which the organism associates ________.

two or more stimuli; a response and its consequence

In Pavlov's experiments, the tone started as a neutral stimulus, and then became a(n) _____ stimulus.

conditioned

Dogs have been taught to salivate to a circle but not to a square. This process is an example of _____.

Discrimination

After Watson and Rayner classically conditioned Little Albert to fear a white rat, the child later showed fear in response to a rabbit, a dog, and a sealskin coat. This illustrates

Generalization

"Sex sells!" is a common saying in advertising. Using classical conditioning terms, explain how sexual images in advertisements can condition your response to a product.

A sexual image is an unconditioned stimulus that triggers an unconditioned response of interest or arousal. Before the ad pairs a product with a sexual image, the product is a neutral stimulus. Over time the product can become a conditioned stimulus that triggers the conditioned response of interest or arousal

Thorndike's law of effect was the basis for ______'s work on operant conditioning and behavior control

Skinner

One way to change behavior is to reward natural behaviors in small steps, as the organism gets closer and closer to the desired behavior. This process is called

Shaping

Your dog is barking so loudly that it's making your ears ring. You clap your hands, the dog stops barking, your ears stop ringing, and you think to yourself, "I'll have to do that when he barks again." The end of the barking was for you a

Negative reinforcer

How could your psychology instructor use negative reinforcement to encourage your attentive behavior during class?

Your instructor could reinforce your attentive behavior by taking away something you dislike. For example, your instructor could offer to shorten the length of an assigned paper or replace standard lecture time with an interesting in

Reinforcing a desired response only some of the times it occurs is called ___________ reinforcement.

Partial (intermittent)

A restaurant is running a special deal. After you buy four meals at full price, you will get a free appetizer. This is an example of a ______

schedule of reinforcement

The partial reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after unpredictable time periods is a _____

schedule.

A medieval proverb notes that "a burnt child dreads the fire." In operant conditioning, the burning would be an example of a

Punisher

Garcia and Koelling's _____

studies showed that conditioning can occur even when the unconditioned stimulus (US) does not immediately follow the neutral stimulus (NS).

Taste

aversion research has shown that some animals develop aversions to certain tastes but not to sights or sounds. Which of Darwin's principles does this support?

Evidence that cognitive processes play an important role in learning comes in part from studies in which rats running a maze develop a _______ _______ of the maze.

Cognitive map

Rats that explored a maze without any reward were later able to run the maze as well as the other rats that had received food rewards for running the maze. The rats that had learned without reinforcement demonstrated __________ _____________.

latent learning

Children learn many social behaviors by imitating parents and other models. This type of learning is called ______ ______

observational learning

According to Bandura, we learn by watching models because we experience ________ reinforcement or ________ punishment.

vicarious; vicarious

Parents are most effective in getting their children to imitate them if

Their words and actions are consistent

Some scientists believe that the brain has ________ neurons that enable empathy and imitation

mirror

Most experts agree that repeated viewing of media violence

is a risk factor for viewer's increased aggression.

A psychologist who asks you to write down as many objects as you can remember having seen a few minutes earlier is testing your _______

recall

The psychological terms for taking in information, retaining it, and later getting it back out are ________, ________, and _________.

encoding; storage; retrieval

The concept of working memory clarifies the idea of short

term memory by focusing on the ________ _______ that occurs in this stage.

Sensory memory may be visual ( _________ memory) or auditory (_________ memory).

iconic; echoic

Our short

term memory for new information is limited to about ______ bits of information

Memory aids that use visual imagery or other organizational devices are called

mnemonics

The ________ seems to function as a temporary processing site for explicit memories

hippocampus

Hippocampus damage typically leaves people unable to learn new facts or recall recent events. However, they may be able to learn new skills, such as riding a bicycle, which is an _______ (explicit/implicit) memory.

implicit

long-term potentiation

refers to an increase in a cell's firing potential.

Specific odors, visual images, emotions, or other associations that help us access memory are examples of _______ _____.

retrieval cues

When you feel sad, why might it help to look at pictures that reawaken some of your best memories?

Memories are stored within a web of many associations, one of which is mood. When you recall happy moments from your past, you activate these positive links. You may then experience mood

When tested immediately after viewing a list of words, people tend to recall the first and last items more readily than those in the middle. When retested after a delay, they are most likely to recall the _______ items on the list.

first

When forgetting is due to encoding failure, meaningless information has not been transferred from ______ into ______

short

Ebbinghaus' _______ curve shows that after an initial decline, memory for novel information tends to level off

forgetting

You will experience less _______ (proactive/retroactive) interference if you learn new material in the hour before sleep than you will if you learn it before turning to another subject.

retroactive

Freud proposed that painful or unacceptable memories are blocked from consciousness through a mechanism called

repression

One reason false memories form is our tendency to fill in memory gaps with our reasonable guesses and assumptions, sometimes based on misleading information. This tendency is an example of the __________ effect.

misinformation

Eliza's family loves to tell the story of how she "stole the show" as a 2

year

We may recognize a face at a social gathering but be unable to remember how we know that person. This is an example of ______________ ______________.

source amnesia

When a situation triggers the feeling that "I've been here before," you are experiencing _____ ____.

deja vu

Children can be accurate witnesses if a neutral person asks nonleading questions soon ___________ the event.

after

Memory researchers involved in the study of memories of abuse tend to disagree with some therapists about _______ extremely upsetting memories.

repressing

Journalist Dorothy Dix once remarked, "Nobody wants to kiss when they are hungry." Which motivation theory best supports her statement?

Maslow's hierarchy of needs supports this statement because it addresses the primacy of some motives over others. Once our basic physiological needs are met, safety concerns are addressed next, followed by belongingness and love needs (such as the desire to kiss).

According to the concept of ____ point, our body maintains itself at a particular weight level.

set

A preference for ______ and _____ foods is a genetically predisposed response to food.

sweet; salty

Blood sugar provides the body with energy. When it is _____ (low/high), we feel hungry

low

The rate at which your body expends energy while at rest is referred to as the _____ _____ rate

basal metabolic

Obese people often struggle to lose weight permanently. This is due to several factors, including the fact that there is a _______ influence on body weight.

genetic

Sanjay eats a diet high in processed foods, fat, and sugar. He knows he may gain weight, but he figures it's no big deal because he can simply lose it in the future. How would you evaluate Sanjay's plan?

Sanjay's plan is problematic. After he gains weight, the extra fat will require less energy to maintain than it did to gain in the first place. Sanjay may have a hard time getting rid of it later, when his metabolism slows down in an effort to retain his body weight.

The number of short

term illnesses and stress

Which of the following is NOT one of the three main types of stressors? Catastrophes, significant life changes, daily hassles, or pessimism?

Pessimism

Selye's general adaptation syndrome (GAS) consists of an alarm reaction followed by _______, then _______.

resistance; exhaustion

When faced with stress, women are more likely than men to show a ______

and

Stress can suppress the _____ ____ by prompting a decrease in the release of lymphocytes, the cells that ordinarily attack bacteria, viruses, cancer cells, and other foreign substances.

immune system

Research has shown that people are at increased risk for cancer a year or so after experiencing significant stress or bereavement. In describing the link, researchers are quick to point out that stress does not create cancer cells, but it weakens the body's _______ _____ against them

natural defenses

A Chinese proverb warns, "The fire you kindle for your enemy often burns you more than him." How is this true of Type A individuals?

Type A individuals frequently experience negative emotions (anger, impatience), during which the sympathetic nervous system diverts blood away from the liver. This leaves fat and cholesterol circulating in the bloodstream for deposit near the heart and other organs, increasing the risk of heart disease and other health problems. Thus, Type A individuals actually harm themselves by directing anger at others.

When faced with a situation in which you feel you have little control, you are more likely to turn to ______ (emotion/problem)

focused coping

Seligman's classic research showed that a dog will respond with learned helplessness if it has received repeated shocks and has had ___ ______ over the shocks.

no control

When elderly patients take an active part in managing their own care and surroundings, their morale and health tend to improve. Such findings indicate that people do better when they experience an ___________ (internal/external) locus of control.

internal

People who have close relationships are less likely to die prematurely than those who do not, supporting the idea that _____ support has a beneficial effect on health.

social

Because it triggers the release of mood

boosting neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine, serotonin, and the endorphins, _________ exercise raises energy levels and helps alleviate depression and anxiety.

Research on the faith factor has found that religiously active people tend to _____ those who are not religiously active.

outlive

A study indicated that most teen boys and girls believe the women they see in online porn are experiencing real sexual pleasure. But the situation- being in front of the camera- suggests the women are acting their role. Social psychologists might explain the teens' misperception as the _______ _______ error.

fundamental attribution

We tend to agree to a larger request more readily if we have already agreed to a small request. This tendency is called the ___ - ___ - ___ - ___ phenomenon.

___foot in the door

Jamala's therapist has suggested that Jamala should "act as if" she is confident, even though she feels insecure and shy. Which social psychological theory would best support this suggestion, and what might the therapist be hoping to achieve?e?

Cognitive dissonance theory best supports this suggestion. If Jamala acts confident, her behavior will contradict her negative self-thoughts, creating cognitive dissonance. To relieve the tension, Jamala may realign her attitudes with her actions by viewing herself as more outgoing and confident

Celebrity endorsements in advertising often lead consumers to purchase products through ______ (central/peripheral) route persuasion.

peripheral

Researchers have found that a person is most likely to conform to a group if the person ______ the group's status.

admires

In Milgram's experiments, the rate of obedience was highest when the "______" was at a distance from the "______."

learner; teacher

Dr. Huang, a popular music professor, delivers fascinating lectures on music history but gets nervous and makes mistakes when describing exam statistics in front of the class. Why does his performance vary by task?

The presence of a large audience generates arousal and strengthens Dr. Huang's most likely response: enhanced performance on a task he has mastered (teaching music history) and impaired performance on a task he finds difficult (statistics).

In a group situation that fosters arousal and anonymity, a person sometimes loses self-consciousness and self-control. This phenomenon is called

deindividualization

Sharing our opinions with like-minded others tends to strengthen our views, a phenomenon referred to as ____________ _____________.

group polarization

Prejudice toward a group involves negative feelings, a tendency to discriminate, and overly generalized beliefs referred to as

stereotypes

the other-race effect occurs when we assume that other groups as _______ (more/less) homogenous than our own group

more

If several well-publicized murders are committed by the other-race effect occurs when we assume that other groups as _______ (more/less) homogenous than our own group

overgeneralized

Evidence of a biochemical influence on aggression is the finding that a higher-than-average level of the hormone ______ is associated with violent behavior in males.

testosterone

Studies show that parents of delinquent young people tend to use beatings to enforce discipline. This suggests that aggression can be learned through observation of _______ _____

aggressive models

A conference of social scientists studying the effects of pornography unanimously agreed that violent pornography leads viewers to be more ________ of coercion in sexual relations.

accepting

Heterosexual pornography most directly influences men's aggression toward women when sexual ______ is portrayed

violence

According to Freud's view of personality structure, the "executive" system, the _____, seeks to gratify the impulses of the _______ in more acceptable ways.

ego; id

Freud proposed that the development of the "voice of conscience" is related to the ____________, which internalizes ideals and provides standards for judgments.

superego

According to the psychoanalytic view of development, we all pass through a series of psychosexual stages, including the oral, anal, and phallic stages. Conflicts unresolved at any of these stages may lead to _______ at that stage.

fixation

Freud believed that defense mechanisms are unconscious attempts to distort or disguise reality, all in an effort to reduce our _______.

anxiety

Freud believed that we may block painful or unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, or memories from consciousness through an unconscious process called _______.

repression

In general, neo-Freudians such as Adler and Horney accepted many of Freud's views but placed more emphasis than he did on ________ interactions

social

Modern-day psychodynamic theorists and therapists agree with Freud about the existence of ________ mental processes.

unconcious

Is repressed memories of anxiety-provoking events part of the contemporary view of the unconscious?

no

Maslow's hierarchy of needs proposes that we must satisfy basic physiological and safety needs before we seek ultimate psychological needs, such as self-actualization. Maslow based his ideas on his study of ______,______ people

healthy/ creative

How might Rogers explain how environment influences the development of a criminal?

Rogers might assert that the criminal was raised in an environment lacking acceptance (unconditional positive regard), genuineness, and empathy, which inhibited psychological growth and led to a negative self

The total acceptance Rogers advocated as part of a growth-promoting environment is called __________ ___________ ____________.

unconditional positive regard

\______ theories of personality focus on describing characteristic behavior patterns, such as agreeableness or extraversion.

Trait

The most widely used personality inventory is the

MMPI

Which of the following is NOT one of the Big Five personality factors? Conscientiousness, anxiety, extraversion, or agreeableness?

Anxiety

Our scores on personality tests best predict our average _______ across many situations.

behavior

The social-cognitive perspective proposes our personality is shaped by a process called reciprocal determinism, as personal factors, environmental factors, and behaviors interact. An example of an _____ factor is the presence of books in a home.

enviormental

Critics say that __________-__________ personality theories are very sensitive to an individual's interactions with particular situations, but that they give too little attention to the person's enduring traits.

social cognitive

The tendency to overestimate others' attention to and evaluation of our appearance, performance, and blunders is called the ___ ___.

spotlight effect

Researchers have found that low self-esteem tends to be linked with life problems. The answer is not clear because the link is ______ and does not indicate cause and effect.

corelational