High School Biology

High

Biological macromolecule

A large, organic molecule such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Monomer

A molecule that is a building block for larger molecules.

Carbohydrates

Biomolecules that provide cells with quick/short-term energy. A lot of sugars end with -ose, and when they do, that's a clue that they might be this biomolecule.

Lipids

Biomolecules that provide cells with long-term energy, make up biological membranes

Proteins

Biomolecules that provide cell structure, regulate cell processes and control the rate of chemical reactions.

Nucleic acids

Biomolecules that store and pass on genetic information

Monosaccharides

Single sugar molecules are usually the monomers of carbohydrates. Contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

Fatty acids and glycerol

Building blocks for lipids. Contains carbon, hydrogen, oxugen.

Amino acids

The building blocks of proteins. Contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.

Nucleotides

The building blocks of nucleic acids. Made out of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus.

Cohesion

Attraction between molecules of the same substance

Adhesion

Attraction between molecules of different substances

Polar molecule

A neutral, or uncharged molecule that has an asymmetric internal distribution of charge, leading to partially positive and partially negative regions

Specific heat capacity

The energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by one degree Celsius

Heat of vaporization

The amount of energy needed to change one gram of a liquid substance to a gas at a constant temperature

Surface tension

The force that acts on the surface of a liquid and that tends to minimize the area of the surface of that liquid.

Density

Mass per unit volume

pH

The measure of the hydrogen ion (H+) concentration in a solution

Acid

Solution with a higher concentration of hydrogen ions than pure water

Base

Solution with a lower concentration of hydrogen ions than water

Nitrogenous base

The part of the nucleotide's structure that is responsible for the incredible variation that exists among all types of organisms

R-Group

A function group that defines a particular amino acid and gives it special properties.

Modern cell theory

A theory that states:

1. All living things are composed of one or more cells.

2. The cell is the basic unit of life.

3. All cells come from pre-existing cells.

Nucleus

Stores genetic information and controls all cell activities

Nucleolus

It's found inside the nucleus, and produces ribosomes.

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

An organelle that stores and creates lipids, and also detoxifies harmful substances.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Has ribosomes attached to it. This organelle does a lot of processing of molecules and production of proteins for the cell.

Peroxisome

An organelle found in eukaryotic cells which plays a crucial role in the breakdown of fatty acids and amino acids and the removal of toxic substances from the cell.

Golgi apparatus

Flattened membrane discs that package and sort proteins

Lysosome

An organelle that contains enzymes to break down waste products for the cell or foreign substances that might not be helpful for the cell.

Mitochondria

An organelle that makes ATP energy for the cell through a process called cellular respiration

Cellular respiration

Process that breaks down glucose and in the presence of oxygen to produce water and ATP, with carbon dioxide as a byproduct

Glycolysis

Glucose is broken down in the cytosol of the cytoplasm into a more useful form called pyruvate. This takes two ATP itself to start up. The net yield per glucose molecule of this process is approximately two pyruvate, two ATP molecules, and two NADH.

Intermediate step

Pyruvate produced from glycolysis is transported by active transport into the mitochondria. The pyruvate is then oxidized and converted to acetyl CoA. Carbon dioxide is also released, and two NADH are produced.

Krebs Cycle

The second stage of cellular respiration, in which pyruvic acid is broken down into carbon dioxide in a series of energy-extracting reactions to produce ATP, NADH, and FADH. NADH and FADH provide energy for the next stage.

Electron transport chain

A series of protein complexes and electron carriers embedded in the mitochondrial membrane. Electrons from NADH and FADH provide the energy for them to pump protons across the mitochondrial membrane, creating a gradient.

Chemiosmosis

The gradient produced by protons pumped across the membrane forces the protons through ATP synthase, powering it to produce ≈ 26-34 ATP molecules per glucose molecule.

Cytoplasm

Clear, thick, jelly-like substance inside the cell membrane that contains the other organelles

Ribosome

Small organelles floating in cytoplasm (or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum) that make proteins

Chloroplast

An organelle found in plant and algae cells where photosynthesis occurs

Photosynthesis

The process by which plants and some other organisms use light energy to convert water and carbon dioxide into oxygen and glucose. Two processes, light-dependent and independent reactions, make up this process.

Light dependent reactions

The reaction in photosynthesis that uses energy from light to produce ATP and NADPH. Light is required.

Calvin cycle

The reaction in photosynthesis that uses energy from ATP and NADPH is used to build a more usable organic carbon dioxide. Together with NADPH and ATP, organic carbon dioxide produces glucose. Light is not required for this process.

Stroma

The fluid outside of the thylakoids where light-independent reactions (Calvin cycle) occur.

Thylakoids

Little compartments in the chloroplast which contain pigment. This is where light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis occur.

Cytoskeleton

A collection of fibres that can provide support for the cell and its organelles

Vacuole

A sac inside a cell that stores materials. Plant cells usually have one central vacuole, while animal cells usually have several smaller vacuoles.

Flagella

Whip/tail-like structure that helps propel the cell forward

Cilia

A short, hair-like structure that surrounds the cell and helps it move

Pseudopodia

Extension of cytoplasm into the cell membrane that allows the cell to "crawl"

Cell membrane

A specialized structure that surrounds the cell and its internal environment; controls the movement of substances into/out of the cell.

Active transport

A process that requires energy to move material across a cell membrane against a concentration difference.

Passive transport

A process that requires NO energy since movement of molecules from high to low concentration moves with the concentration gradient

Hydrophobic

Molecules that repel water

Hydrophilic

Molecules that are attracted to water

Phospholipid

Amphipathic lipid made of glycerol, two fatty acid tails, and a phosphate group

Cholesterol

An essential component of all animal cell membranes as it plays a crucial role in maintaining the makeup of the membrane as well as modulates its fluidity. Found between the hydrophobic tails of the phospholipids.

Eukaryote

Cells that have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles

Prokaryote

A unicellular organism that lacks a nucleus and membrane bound organelles

Metabolism

The set of chemical reactions that occur within living organisms to maintain life.

Anabolism

The synthesis (production) of complex molecules from simpler ones

Catabolism

The breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones

ATP

Adenosine triphosphate. It is the main energy source that cells use to carry out processes.

Exergonic

A reaction that releases energy

Endergonic

A reaction that consumes energy

Catalyst

A substance that speeds up a chemical reaction without being changed

Enzyme

Protein that acts as a biological catalyst. Usually ends with -ase. Eg. Primase

Substrate

The reactant molecule that an enzyme works on

Active site

Part of the enzyme where the substrate binds.

Osmosis

The movement of water molecules from an area with low solute concentration to an area with high solute concentration through a semipermeable membrane.

Hypertonic

A solution with a higher solute concentration COMPARED to another solution. (You can't just say something is hypertonic without comparing it to another solution) To remember this, just think that hyper means lots!

Hypotonic

A solution with a lower solute concentration COMPARED to another solution. (You can't just say something is hypotonic without comparing it to another solution) Hypo rhymes with low, which helps you to remember low solute concentration.

Parthenogenesis

Asexual reproduction in which females produce offspring from unfertilized eggs.

Fragmentation

A means of asexual reproduction whereby a single parent breaks into parts that regenerate into whole new individuals.

Gamete

sex cell

Meiosis

A two-step process of cell division that is used to make gametes

Crossing over

Process in which homologous chromosomes trade parts

Sister chromatids

Two halves of a duplicated chromosome

Zygote

Cell formed during the fertilization of two egg cells

Chromosomes

Threadlike structure of DNA and protein containing genetic information

Homologous chromosomes

Set of chromosomes (one from each parent), that are very similar to one another and have the same size/shape

Sex chromosome

One of two chromosomes (X or Y) that determines an organism's sex

Karyotype

Micrograph image of a diploid set of chromosomes grouped in pairs

Autosome

Chromosome that is not a sex chromosome

Diploid

Cell that contains two sets of homologous chromosomes

Haploid

Cell that contains only a single set of genes

Cell cycle

The series of growth and development steps a cell undergoes between its formation and reproduction

Mitosis

Phase of the cell cycle where the cell separates its DNA into two sets and divides, forming two new cells

Interphase

Period of the cell cycle between cell divisions in which the cell grows, carries out its regular functions, and duplicates its own DNA

Prophase

The first and longest phase of mitosis in which the genetic material inside the nucleus condenses and the chromosomes become visible.

Metaphase

The second phase of mitosis, during which the chromosomes line up across the centre of the cell. The nucleus is also disassembled.

Anaphase

The third phase of mitosis, during which the chromosome pairs lined up in the middle are separated by spindles and move toward opposite poles.

Telophase

In the final phase of mitosis, the chromosomes are at complete opposite ends and new nuclei form on each side to make these two new cells.

Cytokinesis

The final stage of the cell cycle is when the cell's cytoplasm divides, distributing the organelles into each of the two new cells.

Allele

One of different forms of a gene

Genotype

The genetic makeup of an organism (ex: TT)

Phenotype

The physical characteristics of an organism (ex: tall)