psychopathology

The 4 definitions of abnormality

Statistical infrequency

Deviation from Social Norms

Failure to function adequately

Deviation from ideal mental health

What is statistical infrequency

Any behaviour that’s rare (statistically infrequent)

What’s Deviation from social norms

Behaviour violating accepted social rules

What’s failure to function adequately?

An inability to cope with day to day living

What’s deviation from ideal mental health?

Failure to meet the criteria for perfect psychological wellbeing

Statistical infrequency definition evaluation

Strength: objective (the definition is consistent & unbiased once collected)

Strength: Real -life application (useful method of measuring how severe someone’s symptoms are)

Weakness: not all rare characteristics are abnormal or cause for concern (may wrongly label healthy traits as abnormal)

Weakness: cultural relativism what is abnormal in one culture may be normal in another (can cause misunderstanding)

deviation from social norms evaluation

Strength: Considers the context of behaviour

Strength: Helps identify undesirable or antisocial behaviour (takes into account affect on others)

Weakness: Cultural bias (ethnocentrism)

Weakness: Can lead to social control and abuse

Failure to function adequately evaluation

Strength: Can lead to social control and abuse (takes into account any personal suffering)

Strength: Observable behaviour makes it practical

Weakness: Some people may not reco

Deviation from Ideal mental health evaluation

Strength: provides a clear framework for assessing mental health based on positive qualities.

Strength: holistic - considers an individual as a whole person rather than focusing on individual areas of their behaviour

Weakness: Unrealistically high criteria - very few people meet the criteria for ideal mental health

Weakness: subjective definitions of mental health may vary between cultures.

What is OCD?

OD is classified as an anxiety disorder and has two main components - obsessions and compulsions

Characteristics of OCD?

Behavioural - repetition & compulsions

Emotional - anxiety & depression

Cognitive - selective attention & obsessive thoughts

What does the genetic explanation of OCD propose?

That OCD is inherited and influenced by specific genes

What is the role of the COMT and SERT genes in OCD?

COMT gene - Associated with regulating dopamine

SERT gene - Linked to lower levels of serotonin

What neurotransmitter levels are associated with OCD?

High dopamine and low serotonin levels.

How are the basal ganglia and orbitofrontal cortex involved in OCD?

Basal ganglia - controls movement; damage here is linked to OCD-like symptoms

Orbitofrontal cortex - converts sensory info into thoughts; more active in OCD patients

What do SSRIs do in the treatment of OCD?

Increase serotonin by preventing reabsorption into the sending neuron, improving mood.

How do benzodiazepines treat OCD symptoms?

Enhance GABA, which slows down brain activity and reduces anxiety

What research supports the genetic explanation of OCD?

Lewis (1936) - 37% had parents with OCD 21% had sibling with the disorder, suggesting a hereditary link. Additionally, twin studies show higher concordance rates among identical twins.

Nestadt et al (2010): 68% MZ twins vs 31% DZ twins shared OCD indicating a genetic predisposition to the disorder.

What research supports the neural explanation of OCD

Max et. al. (1994): Disconnecting basal ganglia from frontal cortex reduced symptoms in patients with OCD, suggesting abnormal interactions between these brain regions are involved in the disorder's pathology.

Give two strengths of biological treatments for OCD

Soomro et al. (2008): SSRIs more effective than placebos

Cost effective and non-disruptive compared to CBT

Give two weaknesses of biological treatments for OCD

Side effects like hallucinations

Relapse if medication is stopped, showing biology alone isn’t enough

What’s the Diathesis stress model in relation to OCD?

Suggests that OCD results from genetic vulnerability (diathesis) combined with environmental stressors

What is CBT and how is it used to treat OCD?

Cognitive Behavioural Therapy aims to challenge irrational beliefs and reduce anxiety by changing thought patterns and behaviours

What type of disorder is depression?

a mood dosorder

What are behavioural symptoms of depression?

Reduced appetite and sleep

What are emotional symptoms of depression?

anger and feelings of worthlessness

What are cognitive symptoms of depression?

Negative thoughts and difficulty concentrating

Who proposed the negative triad?

Beck

The 3 parts of Beck’s Negative Triad?

Negative views of the self, the world and the future

What role do schemas play in Beck’s theory?

Negative self-schemas lead to biased thinking

What does Ellis’s ABC model stand for?

Activating Event, Belief, Consequence

What kind of beliefs does Ellis think cause depression?

Irrational beliefs

What is the main aim of CBT?

To identify and challenge irrational thoughts

What is behavioural activation in CBT?

Encouraging patients to engage in enjoyable activities

What is REBT?

Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy - challenges irrational beliefs

What are logical and empirical disputing?

Questioning if thoughts are logical or supported by evidence

What is a weakness of CBT

requires motivation, which depressed people often lack

Research supporting CBT’s effectiveness?

March et. al. (2007) -

Study: 327 depressed adolescents

CBT alone - 71% improved

SSRIs alone - 81%

Both - 86% improved

CBT is effective but combined with treatment it works better

What is a phobia?

An anxiety disorder involving irrational fear

What are the behavioural symptoms of phobias?

Avoidance and panic

What are the emotional symptoms of phobias?

Fear and anxiety

What are the cognitive symptoms of phobias?

Irrational beliefs and selective attention

What is Mowrer’s two-process model?

Phobias are acquired via classical conditioning and maintained by operant conditioning

What research supports the two process model

Watson & Raynor (1920) - Little Albert

Method:

Paired a loud noise (UCS) with a white rat (NS)

After several pairings the rat alone (CS) caused fear (CR)

Albert developed a phobia of the rat - fear generalised to similar objects

Phobias can be learned through classical conditioning

What is systematic desensitisation?

Gradual exposure to phobic stimulus using relaxation techniques

What is flooding?

Immediate and intense exposure to the phobic object or situation

What is reciprocal inhibition?

You can’t be anxious and relaxed at the same time

What is a limitation of flooding?

It can be highly disturbing and is not suitable for all patients.

Jahoda’s Criteria for Ideal mental health

Positive attitude towards oneself

Self actualisation

Autonomy

Resisting stress

Accurate perception of reality

Environmental mastery