BU288 OB - Final

CHAPTER 13: CONFLICT AND STRESS

CHAPTER 13: CONFLICT AND STRESS

Conflict + 7 factors:

Conflict is a process that occurs when one person, group, or organizational subunit frustrates the goal attainment of another.

- Conflict often involves antagonistic attitudes and behaviours.

A number of factors contribute to organizational conflict:

- Scarce Resources: differences in power are magnified when resources become scarce

- Ambiguity (jurisdiction and responsibility): It might be difficult to accurately assign praise for good outcomes or blame for bad outcomes when it is hard to see who was responsible for what

- Intergroup Bias (in-group vs. out-group): identifying with the successes of one’s own group and disassociating oneself from out-group failures boosts self-esteem and provides comforting feelings of social solidarity

- Differences in Power, Status, Culture

- Value Clashes

- Personality Clashes

- Interdependence: when individuals or subunits are mutually dependent on each other to accomplish their own goals, the potential for conflict exists

3 types of conflict:

Relationship conflict interpersonal tensions among individuals that have to do with their relationship per se, not the task at hand.

- EX: Personality clashes

Task conflict disagreements about the nature of work to be done.

- EX: Differences of opinion about goals or technical matters

Process conflict disagreements about how work should be organized and accomplished.

- EX: Disagreements about responsibility, authority, resource allocation, and who does what

More types of conflict (2)

Constructive conflict: Conflict that promotes good decisions and positive organizational change: comes from elevated task conflict with low minor relationship and process conflict

Conflict stimulation: A strategy of increasing conflict to motivate another

3 signals to know when conflict may be needed

- The existence of a "friendly rut", in which peaceful relationships take precedence over organizational goals

- When parties that should be interacting closely withdraw from each other to avoid overt conflict

- When conflict is suppressed or downplayed by denying differences, ignoring controversy, and exaggerating points of agreement

Modes of managing conflict chart

Common Responses to Conflict (6)

1. Desire to win: “Winning” the conflict becomes more important than developing a good solution to the problem

2. Concealing information: The parties begin to conceal information from each other or to pass on distorted information

3. Stereotypes and self-image exacerbated

4. Increase group cohesiveness: Each side becomes more cohesive

5. Reduced between-group interaction: limited interaction or engagement with external or opposing viewpoints.

6. Aggressive people may emerge as leaders

Benefit of task conflict

- Some degree of task conflict is beneficial to performance, especially when the task is

- non-routine and

- requires a variety of perspectives to be considered

Managing conflict (2 approaches):

How do you react to conflict situations?

- There are several basic reactions that can be thought of as styles, strategies, or intentions for dealing with conflict.

These approaches to managing conflict are a function of:

- How assertive you are in trying to satisfy your own or your group’s concerns.

- How cooperative you are in trying to satisfy those of the other party or group.

5 styles for dealing with conflict:

There are five styles for dealing with conflict:

1. Avoiding

2. Accommodating

3. Competing

4. Compromise

5. Collaborating

Managing conflict graph

Avoiding (4)

Avoiding

- A conflict management style characterized by low assertiveness of one’s own interests and low cooperation with the other party.

- It can provide short-term stress reduction, but it does not really change the situation.

- Its effectiveness is limited.

- It might be a sensible response when the issue is trivial, information is lacking, people need to cool down, and the opponent is very powerful and hostile.

Accommodating (3)

Accommodating

- A conflict management style in which one cooperates with the other party while not asserting one’s own interests

- If it is seen as a sign of weakness, it does not bode well for future interactions.

- It can be an effective strategy when you are wrong, the issue is more important to the other party, and you want to build good will.

Competing (3)

Competing

- A conflict management style that maximizes assertiveness for your own position and minimizes cooperative responses.

- In competing, you tend to frame the conflict in strict win-lose terms.

- It can be effective when you have a lot of power, you are sure of your facts, the situation is truly win-lose, or you will not have to interact with the other party in the future.

Compromise (5)

Compromise

- A conflict management style that combines intermediate levels of assertiveness and cooperation.

- It does not result in the most creative response to conflict.

- It is not useful for resolving conflicts that stem from power asymmetry.

- It is a sensible reaction to conflict stemming from scarce resources and it is a good fallback position if other strategies fail.

- [only short term solution if there is a power difference]

Collaborating (4)

Collaborating

- A conflict management style that maximizes both assertiveness and cooperation.

- It is an attempt to secure an integrative agreement that fully satisfies the interests of both parties (a win-win resolution).

- It works best when the conflict is not intense and when each party has information that is useful to the other.

- Although it takes time and practice to develop, it frequently enhances productivity and achievement.

Outcomes of the various modes of managing conflict (3)

What are the outcomes of the various modes of managing conflict when they are used repeatedly?

- Avoiding and accommodating lead to conflict suppression.

- Destructive conflict, resulting from the frequent use of the assertive style, is highly visible and severely damages group functioning and performance.

- Constructive conflict is most likely to emerge from collaboration and compromise.

2 Main Conflict Management Styles

Dispositional

- Individuals usually have a “preferred” style

Situational

- However, there are some situations where the style may be more or less effective

- Be sure to assess the situation in order to determine the effectiveness of the style.

Conflict summary (2) + (2 uneasiness is...)

We often recognize that conflict is valuable.

- Managing conflict well can spark creativity and stimulate innovation.

- Managing conflict poorly can cause stress and diminish performance.

But...We are uneasy when we have to deal with it.

Much of the uneasiness associated with conflict is associated with:

- Lack of understanding of the causes and forms of conflict.

- Lack of confidence in one's ability to manage it effectively.

Model of a stress episode chart

What is stress (2)

Stress is a psychological reaction to the demands inherent in a stressor that have the potential to make a person feel tense or anxious.

- The person does not feel capable of coping with these demands.

Stressors (2) (2 types)

Stressors are environmental events or conditions that have the potential to induce stress.

- Some conditions would be stressful for just about everyone (e.g., extreme heat or cold).

- An individual's personality often determines the extent to which a potential stressor becomes a real stressor

a. Challenge Stressors

Associated with workload, pressure to complete tasks, time urgency.

b. Hindrance Stressors

Stressors that keep you from reaching your goals (red tape, office politics, confusion over responsibilities, etc.).

Which stressor is more harmful? (2)

Which is more harmful? Why?

- Hindrance is more harmful

Challenge stressors have positive relationships with job satisfaction and organizational commitment and negative relationships with turnover intentions and turnover.

Hindrance: negative relationships with job satisfaction and organizational commitment and positive relationships with turnover intentions, turnover, and withdrawal behavior.

Stress reaction + (1)

Stress reaction: The behavioral, psychological, and physiological consequences of stress

- Can be positive (e.g. elevated blood pressure) or active

Personality and stress (4)

Locus of control: set of beliefs about whether one's behavior is controlled mainly by internal or external factors

- Externals are more likely to feel anxious in the face of stressors

- Internals are more likely to confront stressor directly

Type A behavior behavior pattern: Personality pattern that includes aggressiveness, ambitiousness, competitiveness, hostility, impatience, and a sense of time urgency

^ - Workaholism: “addiction” to work in which one has an internal compulsion to work, thinks persistently about work, and works excessively

Negative affectivity: propensity to view the world including oneself and other people in a negative light

- Predisposition to perceive stressors in the workplace

- Hypersensitivity to existing stressors

- Tendency to provide stress through negativity

- Use of passive, indirect coping styles that avoid real sources of stress

Executive and managerial stressors (2)

Role overload: the requirement for too many tasks to be performed in too short a period of time or to work too many hours

- Partially because of open-ended nature of managerial roles

Heavy responsibility: Work of executives can have extremely important consequences for the organization, its members and the executives themselves

- Executives are responsible for people as well as things, and this influence over the future of others has the potential to induce stress

Operative level stressor (+2)

Operative: individual who occupies a non professional, non managerial position

Poor working conditions: Stress form the chance of accidents, excessive heat/cold/noise/pollution (physically unpleasant and potentially dangerous working conditions)

Poor job design: Jobs that are too simple or not challenging enough can cast as stressors

Boundary role stressors (2)

Boundary roles: are positions in which organizational members are required to interact with members of other organizations or with the public

- People are likely to experience stress as they straddle the imaginary boundary between the organization and its environment

Burnout: Syndrome of emotional exhaustion → cynicism → reduced self efficacy

- Most common in boundary roles but can be in any

Strain (3 responses) and Burnout

Strain: a negative response to stress.

Physiological responses: high blood pressure, susceptibility to disease, gastrointestinal problems, etc.

Psychological responses: anxiety, depression, exhaustion, etc.

Behavioural responses: poor performance, aggression, substance abuse, absenteeism, turnover, etc.

Burnout: A syndrome typified by emotional exhaustion, cynicism, and low self-efficacy.

Sources of Stress at Various Points in the Organization chart

Stress and Resources

Resources play a large role in how stress is experienced

Resources: objects, conditions, personal characteristics (e.g., self-esteem), energy, etc.

Basically, anything that we value…

Homeostatic (i.e., balance) models: stress is a “relationship between the person and the environment that is appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding his or her resources and endangering his or her well-being” (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984)

Conservation of Resources Theory (3)

Conservation of Resources Theory

Stress is a reaction to:

- Perceived threat of net loss of resources

- Actual net loss of resources

- Lack of resource gain following investment

Job Demands-Resources Model (Two processes)

Two processes

- Job demand stressors leading to strain.

- Job resources leading to motivation (similar to job characteristics theory)

Job Demands-Resources Model notes (5)

- High job resources foster work engagement, while high job demands exhaust employees physically and mentally and lead to burnout.

- Research has found that job demands are related to burnout, disengagement, and health problems.

- Job resources lead to work engagement, organizational citizenship behaviour, and organizational commitment.

- Although it is often thought that resources can buffer the negative effects of demands, the most recent research indicates this is essentially untrue, and it is better to minimize demands and maximize resources.

- The negative effects of demands are more potent than the positive effects of resources.

Job Demands-Resources Model chart + (2)

- Interaction of job demands and job resources.

- Having resources to cope with stress can offset the negative effects of stress.

Job demand resources model and Work engagement

Work engagement: Positive work related state of mind that is characterized by vigor, dedication, and absorption

1. Vigor: High levels of energy and mental resilience

2. Dedication: Being strongly involved in work, experiencing significance, enthusiasm, challenge

3, Absorption: Being gully concentrated and engrossed in work

Job demand resource model: Specifies how jobs Demands cause burnout and job resources cause engagement

- Job demands: Features of a job that require sustained physical or psychological effort

- Job resources: Features of a job that are functional (from organization, interpersonal/social relations, organization of work, task itself)

Counterproductive work behaviors (5)

Bullying: Repeated negative behavior that is directed toward one or more individuals lower power or status and creates a hostile work environment

Mobbing: When a number of individuals (usually direct coworkers) “gang up” on a particular employee

Abusive supervision: Bullying of subordinate by managers

Cyberbullying: Bullying via email, texting, social network platforms, or blogs

Ostracism: When a group or individual fails to interact with a coworker when it would be normal to do so (e.g. ignoring, shunning)

*victims experience stress because they feel powerless to deal with perpetrators

Other general stressors (4)

Work-family conflict: When work duties interfere with family life or family life interferes with work responsibilities

- Generally around childcare and eldercare

Job insecurity and change

Stressful when secure employment is threatened

Role ambiguity

A lack of direction is stressful, especially for people who are low in tolerance for ambiguity

Techno-stress: Stress from having to use and master workplace information and communication technologies

- Techno-overload, techno-innovation, techno-uncertainty, techno-complexity, techno-insecurity

Summary of workplace stressors chart

Behavioural Reactions to Organizational Stress (5)

Behavioural reactions

- Problem solving

- Seeking social support

- Performance changes

- Withdrawal and presenteeism

- Use of addictive substances

Psychological defense mechanisms to stress + (5)

Defense mechanisms: Psychological attempts to reduce the anxiety associated with stress

- Rationalization: Attributing socially acceptable reasons or motives to one's actions

- Projection: Attributing own undesirable ideas and motives to others

- Displacement: Directing anger at a “safe” target

- Reaction formation: Expressing self in a manner directly opposite to true feelings

- Compensation: Applying skills in one area to make up for failure in another

* Useful when used occasionally to temporality, reduce anxiety, but not when chronic

Effective Strategies for Dealing with Stress? (individual (4) organizational 4)

Individual strategies:

- Better Time Management

- Physical Activity

- Finding Time for Relaxation

- Building Social Support

Organizational strategies:

- Job redesign

- Family-friendly human resource policies

- Stress management programs

- Work-life balance, fitness, and wellness programs

Note how the strategies tie into demands and resources (e.g., job redesign, time, energy, social support, etc.)

CHAPTER 9: LEADERSHIP

CHAPTER 9: LEADERSHIP

Leadership:

Leadership: The influence that particular individuals exert on the goal achievement of others in an organizational context.

- Effective leadership exerts influence in a way that achieves organizational goals by enhancing the productivity, innovation, satisfaction, and commitment of the workforce.

- Effective leaders can change the way people think, feel, behave, and they can have a positive effect on individuals, groups, and even entire organizations

Leaders vs Managers

Leaders

- Create

- Originate

- Develop

- Inspire trust

- Think long-term

- Ask what and why

- Watch the horizon

- Challenge the status quo

- Do the right things

- Seek and Implement Change, Provide Vision, Cause Pain

Managers

- Implement

- Copy

- Maintain

- Control

- Think short-term

- Ask how and when

- Watch the bottom line

- Accept the status quo

- Do things right

- Maintain the status quo

Strategic leadership + (2)

Strategic leadership: refers to a leader’s ability to anticipate, envision, maintain flexibility, think strategically, and work with others to initiate changes that will create a viable future for the organization

- Strategic leaders can provide an organization with a sustainable competitive advantage by helping their organizations compete in turbulent and unpredictable environments and by exploiting growth opportunities

- any organizational member can be a leader

Transactional leadership + (2)

Transactional leadership is leadership that is based on a straightforward exchange relationship between a leader and followers.

Transactional leadership behaviour involves:

1. Contingent reward behaviour

Involves exchange of rewards for effort, promises rewards for good performance, recognizes accomplishments.

2. Management by exception

Leadership that involves the leader taking corrective action on the basis of the results of leader-follower transactions.

The leader monitors follower behaviour, anticipates problems, and takes corrective actions before the behaviour creates serious problems.

There are two forms of management by exception:

Management by exception–active involves routinely monitoring the behaviour of followers and actively searching for and correcting deviations from the norm as they happen.

Management by exception–passive involves correcting mistakes only after they have occurred.

Laissez-faire leaders (5)

Leaders with Laissez-faire style

- Provide limited instructions

- Have limited contact with subordinates/team members

- Often do not provide feedback, goals

- Take the approach of "letting people do their job"

Note: This style is not very effective and often frustrating for employees

Transformational leadership + (1) + four key dimesnions

Transformational leadership: leadership that provides followers with a new vision that instills true commitment.

- Transformational leaders change the beliefs and attitudes of followers to correspond with a new vision and motivates them to achieve performance beyond expectations.

There are four key dimensions of transformational leader behaviour:

- Intellectual stimulation

- Individualized consideration

- Inspirational motivation

- Charisma

Intellectual stimulation (4)

Intellectual stimulation

- People are stimulated to think about problems in new ways.

- This contributes to the “new vision” aspect of transformational leadership.

- Leader challenges assumptions, takes risks, and solicits followers’ ideas.

- It often involves creativity and novelty.

Individualized consideration (2)

Individualized consideration

- To treat employees as distinct individuals, indicating concern for their needs and personal development, and serving as a mentor or coach.

- The emphasis is a one-on-one attempt to meet the concerns and needs of the individual in question in the context of the overall goal or mission.

Inspirational motivation (3)

Inspirational motivation

- Communication of visions that are appealing and inspiring to followers.

- Leaders with inspirational motivation have a strong vision for the future based on values and ideals.

- They stimulate enthusiasm, challenge followers with high standards, communicate optimism about future goal attainment, and provide meaning for the task at hand.

Charisma / Idealized Influence (2)

Charisma / Idealized Influence

- The ability to command strong loyalty and devotion from followers and thus have the potential for strong influence among them.

- Charisma provides the emotional aspect of transformational leadership.

Transformational Leadership Outcomes (8)

Positively related to:

- Job satisfaction

- Satisfaction with leader

- Trust in leader

- Motivation

- Organizational commitment

- Leader effectiveness

- Performance

- Extra effort (by followers)

Transactional versus Transformational Leadership + (4)

Transformational

- Positively related to performance

Contingent reward

- Positively related to performance

Management by exception (active and passive)

- Negatively (weakly) related to performance

Note: Transformational and Transactional leadership are not mutually exclusive.

The Dark Side of Charisma (10)

The Dark Side of Charisma

- Being in awe of the leader reduces good suggestions by followers

- Desire for leader acceptance inhibits criticism by followers

- Adoration by followers creates delusions of leader infallibility

- Excessive confidence and optimism blind the leader to real dangers

- Denial of problems and failures reduces organizational learning

- Risky, grandiose projects are more likely to fail

- Taking complete credit for successes alienates some key followers

- Impulsive, non-traditional behavior creates enemies as well as believers

- Dependence on the leader inhibits development of competent successors

- Failure to develop successors creates an eventual leadership crisis

Theories of Positive Leadership (6 + (4)

Positive leadership: Focuses on leader behaviors and interpersonal dynamics that increase followers confidence and result in positive outcomes beyond task compliance

Empowering leadership

- Focuses on leader behaviors and interpersonal dynamics that increase followers confidence and result in positive outcomes beyond task compliance

Ethical leadership

- The demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct through personal actions and interpersonal relationships and the promotion of such conduct to followers

- Leads to employees having more trust in the leader → positive work outcomes

Ethical organizational climate: The shared perceptions that employees have about ethical policies, practices, and procedures in formal organizational settings (influenced by ethical leadership)

Authentic leadership: Positive form of leadership that involves being true to oneself

- Leads to employees perceiving the leader as moral, open, and fair

Authentic leadership behaviors

- Self awareness: Understanding of own strengths and weaknesses, awareness of impact on others

- Relational transparency: Presenting of one true or authentic self to others and open sharing of information and expressions of true thoughts and feelings

- Balanced processing: Objective analysis of all relevant information before making a decision, consideration of views that challenge position

- Internalized moral perspective: Behavior and decision making consistent with internal values and standards

Servant leadership

- Form of leadership that goes beyond one's own self interests and having a genuine concern to serve others and a motivation to lead

- Leads to employee self efficacy, commitment to supervisors, perceptions of procedural justice

Glass ceiling

Glass ceiling

Invisible barrier that prevents women from advancing to senior leadership positions in organizations

Leader-Member Exchange + (4)

Leader-Member Exchange is a theory that focuses on the quality of relationship between a leader and a follower.

Based on Social Exchange Theory

- The idea is that interdependent transactions of things of value generate high-quality relationships.

- Involves the norm of reciprocity

- Repeated exchanges lead to trust, loyalty, and mutual commitments

Example: leader does something good for follower (such as giving attention) and follower will reciprocate with good performance.

Antecedents to Leader-Member Exchange (followers + leaders)

Followers:

- When they are competent, agreeable, conscientious, and extraverted.

Leaders:

- When they are extraverted and agreeable

- When they engage in contingent reward behavior

- When they engage in transformational leadership

Note: Related to perceived similarity between leader and follower, and liking.

Outcomes of Leader-Member Exchange

Leader-Member Exchange associated with:

- More organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs)

- Higher job performance

- Higher commitment

- Higher job satisfaction

- Higher satisfaction with supervisor

- Higher perceptions of organizational justice

- Decreased role ambiguity

- Less turnover

Note: LMX can lead to perceptions that some workers are getting preferential treatment… (in-group vs. out-group).

The Trait Theory of Leadership (5)

- Leadership depends on the personal qualities or traits of the leader.

- Based on the assumption that those who become leaders and do a good job of it possess a special set of traits that distinguish them from the masses of followers.

Traits are individual characteristics such as physical attributes, intellectual ability, and personality.

- Many traits are not associated with whether people become leaders or how effective they are as leaders.

- However, some traits are associated with leadership.

- All 5 of the Big Five dimensions of personality have been found to be related to leadership emergence and success, with extraversion and conscientiousness being the most consistent predictors of leadership effectiveness

Traits Associated with Leadership Effectiveness: (9)

- Intelligence

- Energy and drive

- Self-confidence

- Dominance

- Motivation to lead

- Emotional stability

- Honesty and integrity

- Need for achievement

- Sociability

Narcissism + Motivation to lead

Narcissism

- Personality trait that combines grandiosity, attention seeking, an unrealistically inflated self view, a need for that self view to be continuously reinforced through self regulation, and a general lack of regard for others

- Tends to be related to performance volatility

Motivation to lead

- The desire to attain leadership roles and to expand effort to fulfill leader role requirement

Limitations of the trait approach

Do traits make the leader or does the opportunity for leadership produce the traits?

- Does not tell us what leaders do to influence others successfully.

- It does not take into account the situation in which leadership occurs.

- Traits alone are not sufficient for successful leadership.

- Traits are only a precondition for certain actions that a leader must take in order to be successful.

- Can lead to bias and discrimination when evaluation a leader’s effectiveness and when making decisions about promoting people to leadership positions

Note: Traits are often a better predictor of whether one becomes a leader than leader effectiveness…

Leadership categorization theory

Leadership categorization theory states that people are more likely to view somebody as a leader and to evaluate them as a more effective leader when they possess prototypical characteristics of leadership

Consideration and initiating structure

Consideration is the extent to which a leader is approachable and shows personal concern and respect for employees

- Considerate leaders are friendly and egalitarian

Initiating structure is the degree to which a leader concentrates on group goal attainment

- Structuring leaders clearly defines and organizes own role and role of followers

- Not incompatible can have different levels of both

Consequences of consideration and structure (4)

- Consideration and structure both contribute positively to employees' motivation, job satisfaction, and leader effectiveness

- Consideration tends to be more strongly related to follower satisfaction (leader and job satisfaction), motivation, and leader effectiveness

- Initiating structure is slightly more strongly related to leader job performance and group performance

- The relative importance of consideration and structure varies according to the nature of the leadership situation

Leader reward and punishment behaviors

Leader reward behavior: Leaders use of compliments, tangible benefits, and desired special treatment

Contingent reward behavior: Rewarding employees for meeting performance goals and expectations

Leads employees to know what is expected of them

Leader punishment behavior: Leaders use of reprimands and unfavorable task assignments and the active withholding of rewards

Extremely difficult to use effectively

Emergent leadership

Emergent leadership the degree to which an individual with no formal status or authority is perceived by one or more team members as exhibiting leaderlike influence.

- It is the extent to which one is perceived by others as a leader.

Leader emergence positively related to:

- Extraversion, Emotional Stability, Conscientiousness, Intelligence, Authoritarianism, Leader experience, Self-esteem, Masculinity, etc.

- Person who talks quite a bit often becomes a “leader”.

Task Leader: Concerned with accomplishing the task.

Social-Emotional Leader: Reduces tension, manages disagreements, settles arguments, maintains morale

Shared leadership (3)

Shared leadership

- Emergent and dynamic team phenomenon where leadership roles and influence are distributed among team members

- Multiple team members emerge as informal leaders

- Since informal leaders do not have formal authority, they must rely on being well-liked or being perceived as highly skilled to exert influence

Situational Theories of Leadership

The situation refers to the setting in which influence attempts occur.

- The basic premise of situational theories of leadership is that the effectiveness of a leadership style is contingent on the setting.

- The setting includes the characteristics of the employees, the nature of the task they are performing, and characteristics of the organization.

Two situational theories of leadership that are among the best known and most studied:

1. Fiedler’s Contingency Theory

2. House’s Path–Goal Theory

Fiedler's contingency theory

Contingency theory

- The association between leadership orientation and group effectiveness is contingent on how favorable the situation is for exerting influence

- Some situations are more favorable than others for influence

Least preferred co-worker (LPC)

Least preferred co-worker (LPC) is someone with whom the leader has had a difficult time getting the job done

- Leadership orientation is measured by having leaders describe their LPC

- The leader who describes the LPC relatively favourably can be considered relationship-oriented

- The leader who describes the LPC unfavourably can be considered task-oriented

- Fielder has argued that the LPC score reveals a personality trait that reflects the leader’s motivational structure

Favorable situations

- Leader-member relations are good

- High task structure

- High position power

- Task orientation is most effective when situation is very favorable or very unfavorable

- A situation is considered to be most favourable when the relationship between the leader and the group embers is good (leader-member relations), the task at hand is highly structured (task structure), and when the leader has been granted formal authority by the organization to tell others what to do (position power)

- The situation is least favourable when leader-member relations are poor, the task is unstructured, and the leader has weak position power

Favourable situations chart

Path Goal Theory

Path Goal Theory is concerned with the situations under which various leader behaviours are most effective.

- Effective leaders “engage in behaviors that complement subordinates’ environments and abilities in a manner that compensates for deficiencies and is instrumental to subordinate satisfaction and individual and work unit performance” (House, 1996).

Goals should promote job satisfaction, leader acceptance, and high effort:

- To achieve job satisfaction and leader acceptance, leader behaviour must be perceived as immediately satisfying or as leading to future satisfaction.

- To promote employee effort, leaders must make rewards dependent on performance and ensure that employees have a clear picture of how they can achieve these rewards.

Path Goal Theory + contd

Theory considers two sets of contingencies (situations)

- Environmental variables

- Characteristics of employees

Leader should compensate for what is lacking in the work setting or employee

Effective leaders enhance goal-oriented performance by

- Enhancing motivation

- Enhancing abilities of followers

- Providing guidance

- Reducing obstacles

- Providing resources to facilitate performance

Path Goal Theory chart

Path-Goal Styles (four specific kinds of leader behaviour)

Path–Goal Theory is concerned with four specific kinds of leader behaviour:

1. Directive path-goal clarifying behaviors:

Behaviors that clarify goals, clarify means to carry out tasks, scheduling, coordinating work, use of rewards/punishment contingent on performance, etc.

2. Supportive Leader Behavior:

Behavior that satisfies subordinate needs and preferences, display concern for subordinate welfare, creating friendly and supportive environment, etc.

3. Participative Leader Behavior:

Behavior that encourages participation in decision making. Consulting with subordinates, taking their opinions into account, etc.

4. Achievement Oriented Leader Behavior:

Encouraging performance excellence, setting challenging goals, seeking improvement, emphasizing excellence, showing confidence, etc.

Path-Goal Styles: When are the path-goal styles most effective?

Path-Goal Styles

When are the path-goal styles most effective?

Directive

When individuals have difficulty doing tasks or the tasks are ambiguous.

Supportive

When individuals are under stress or otherwise show that they need to be supported.

Participative

When individuals need to buy into decisions.

Achievement Oriented

When individuals like challenges and are highly motivated.

Path Goal: Strengths and Weaknesses?

Strengths

- Generally supported by research

- Considers employees, situation, and leader

Weaknesses

- Often better at predicting job satisfaction and leader acceptance than job performance.

- Can leaders recognize the various situations?

- Can leaders actually adjust behavior to various situations?

- Are some individuals better at this than others?

- What happens if you can’t adjust?

Different types of employees need or prefer different forms of leadership

- Employees who are high need achievers should work well under achievement-oriented leadership

- Employees who prefer being told what to do should respond best to a directive leadership style

Participative leadership - Adv(3) and Dis(3)

Participative leadership means involving employees in making work-related decision

Potential advantages of participative leadership

- Higher motivation and performance

- Higher quality decisions than leader would make on their own

- Higher acceptance of leader decisions

Potential problems of participative leadership

- Time and energy of the leader

- Loss of power of the leader

- Lack of receptivity or knowledge from employees

Vroom and Jago's situational model of participation

Vroom and Jago's situational model of participation

- Recognizes that there are various degrees of participation that leaders can exhibit

A = autocratic C = consulitative G = group

I = individual II = group involved

AI = solve problem yourself

AII = get info from employees then decide yourself

CI = share problem with relevant employees, consult them on their thoughts, then decide yourself

CII = share problem with group, take suggestions, then decide

GII = share the problem with group; evaluate alternatives, attempt to reach agreement together

Social exchange theory

Social exchange theory: Individuals who are treated favorably by others feel obligated to reciprocate by responding positively and returning the favorable treatment

Servant leadership + (2) + (six characteristics of servant leaders)

Servant leadership: involves going beyond one’s own self-interests and having a genuine concern to serve others and a motivation to lead.

- The focus of servant leadership is a concern for the needs of followers and their growth and development.

- A servant leader is somebody who wants to serve first and lead second.

There are six characteristics of servant leaders:

- Empowering and developing people

- Humility

- Authenticity

- Interpersonal acceptance

- Providing direction

- Stewardship

Servant Leadership positively related to (7)

Servant Leadership positively related to:

- LMX

- Trust in manager

- Job performance

- Organizational citizenship behaviors

- Engagement

- Job satisfaction

- Commitment

Point: Employees in departments that have servant leaders were found to have higher perceptions of being treated fairly and were more likely to exhibit helping behaviours.

A challenge to leadership (5)

- Leaders often have to do things that are seen as being unfair

- e.g., deliver bad news, ask people to work extra hours, etc.

- It is sometimes a part of the job

- Seen as mistreatment/harm by subordinates

- Unfairness affects perceptions of the leader...

Role congruity theory (3)

Role congruity theory

- Prejudice against female leaders is the result of an incongruity between the perceived characteristics of women and the perceived requirements of leadership roles

Agentic traits: Assertion and control (associated with men)

Communal traits: Concern for the compassionate treatment of others (associated with women)

Do men and women adopt different leadership styles?

- Women have a tendency to be more participative or democratic than men.

- Women leaders are more transformational than men leaders, and to also engage in more of the contingent reward behaviours of transactional leadership.

- Men leaders engage in more management by exception and laissez-faire leadership which is a passive form of leadership that involves avoidance or absence of leadership and is negatively related to leader effectiveness.

- These findings attest to the ability of women to be highly effective leaders

- Men are perceived as more effective in organizations that are masculine and male dominated; women are perceived as more effective in organizations that are feminine and female dominated.

- When these factors are taken into account, men and women do not differ in perceived leadership effectiveness.

Cultural dimensions distinguishing societies from each other

Cultural dimensions distinguishing societies from each other

- Performance orientation

- Assertiveness

- Future orientation

- Humane orientation

- Institutional collectivism

- In group collectivism

- Gender egalitarianism

- Power distance

- Uncertainty avoidance

Implicit leadership theory

Implicit leadership theory states that individuals hold a set of beliefs about the kinds of attributes, personality characteristics, skills, and behaviours that contribute to or impede outstanding leadership

Global leadership + 4 characteristics of global leaders:

Global leadership

Set of leadership capabilities required to function effectively in different cultures and the ability to cross language, social, economic, and political borders

Characteristics of global leaders:

- Unbridled inquisitiveness: relish the opportunity to see and experience new things

- Personal character: emotional connection to people from other cultures, uncompromising integrity

- Duality: balance global integration and local demands

- Savvy: global business and organizational understanding

CHAPTER 10

CHAPTER 10

Communication + (5)

Communication is the process by which information is exchanged between a sender and a receiver.

- The simplest prototype is a one-on-one exchange between two individuals.

- The sender must encode their thoughts into some form that can be transmitted to the receiver.

- The receiver must perceive the message and accurately decode it to achieve accurate understanding.

- The model points out the complexity of the communication process and demonstrates a number of points at which errors can occur.

Point: Effective communication occurs when the right people receive the right information in a timely manner.

Basics of Organizational Communication (2) + forms of communication (3)

Basics of Organizational Communication

- The lines on an organizational chart represent lines of authority and reporting relationships.

- The chain of command refers to the lines of authority and formal reporting relationships in an organization.

Three necessary forms of communication:

- Downward communication

- Upward communication

- Horizontal communication

Communication by Strict Chain of Command (3 types explain)

Downward communication

- Information that flows from the top of the organization toward the bottom.

Upward communication

- Information that flows from the bottom of the organization toward the top.

Horizontal communication

- Information that flows between departments or functional units, usually as a means of coordinating effort.

- Within a strict chain of command, such communication would flow up to and then down from a common manager.

Elements of communication (3)

Communication can be formal or informal

- e.g., company memo vs. workplace gossip

Communication flow can be downward, upward, or horizontal/lateral

- e.g., company-wide email from CEO (downward)

- Employee suggestions/ideas (upward)

- Communication between workgroups (horizontal)

Communication can be verbal or non-verbal

e.g., includes alternative mediums, and even body language

Communication process chart