roman history midterm

Aeneas

- Trojan hero that fled Troy when it fell to the Greeks

- Traveled across mediterranean and settled in Latium → founded Lavinium

- Lavinium became a religious center, shine for the Penates (household gods) and Aeneas' tomb

- His son made Alba Longa, seat of kings who ruled Latium

- Mythical, told in Virgil's Aeneid

Romulus

- Rome's legendary founder

- Born with twin Remus to Rhea Silvis, daughter of rightful king of Alba Longa, Numitor

- Raised by she-wolf and shepherd Faustulus

- Twins killed usurper Amulius and restored Numitor to throne

- Romulus established Rome, killed Remus

Location of Rome

- Defense and trade

- 7 hills, natural fortifications

- Tiber River: water source, trade, harbor allowed for transport of goods

- Rome controlled trade routes, like north-south salt road and east-west coastal road

Palatine

- Hill where Romulus founded Rome

- Early settlements back to 1000 BCE; huts, tombs, cremation burials on hill and nearby Forum and Capitoline

- By 770-730 BCE, part of a federation of villages that would later form Rome

- Prestigious residential area for emperors and elites

"Romulean" Wall

- 8th century wall discovered

- NOT the pomerium (sacred city boundary)

- Purpose uncertain → defensive?

- Evidence of organized central authority that could coordinate large construction projects

- Rome was more developed than scattered settlements

Hut-Villages

- Circular huts made of wood and thatch on hills around Tiber River → agrarian society

- Villages grew into centralized community → beginning of Rome's transformation into a city-state

City-State

- Centralized govt, social hierarchy, defined territorial control

- Independent political unity, organizing law, defense, & trade

- 7th century BCE

- Consolidate power over neighboring communities → enabled Rome expansion/control

Servius Tullius

- 6th king of Rome, key reforms that strengthened city

- Enslaved origin (servus=slave)

- Miraculous birth in house of Tarquinius Priscus and Tanaquil (fire over head)

- Married to their daughter, succeeded FIL

- "2nd founder of Rome"

- Assassinated by daughter Tullia and her husband Lucius Tarquinius

Mastarna

- Mastarna = Etruscan name for Servius Tullius

- Alternative story

- Emperor Claudius' speech on Lyon Tablet: Mastarna was a companion of Etruscan warlord Caelius Vivenna

- He and Viviena's army went to Rome, Mastarna took power and name Servius

- Supported by frescoes in Francois Tomb

- Servius a military leader not of enslaved origin??

Italian Warlords

- Role in Roman and Etruscan history: led private armies, territorial conflicts

- Caelius Vivenna and brother Aulus: Etruscan warlords from Vulci, show warrior culture

- Operated from city-states, used followers and military to control land

- Mastarna went from warlord → ruler

- Militarized nature of early Italy (power~force, not lineage/law)

François Tomb

- Etruscan burial site in Vulci 1857

- Frescoes:

- Battle scene w/ Caelius Vivenna and Mastarna

- Mastarna freeing Vivenna → Etruscsn version of Servius' as warrior not slave

- Character "Cnaeve Tarchunies" → referencing Tarquin dynasty of Rome

- Shows ties to Etruscan warlords

Twelve Tables

- Earliest codified laws, in response to plebian demands

- Inspired by Athens

- 10 officials (Decemvirs) to draft 10 laws, 2 more added later

- Laws on tabulae; topics like property, crime, family rights

- Original tablets lost, but writers preserved contents

Decemvirs (Ten Men)

- 10 men appointed to draft Twelve Tables

- Full authority to replace traditional magistrates

- Second board was tyrannical

- Claudius tried to seize a plebeian woman, Verginia → uprising

- Overthrown and Rome returned to earlier govt

Struggle of the Orders

- Long social conflict b/w patricians (elite ruling class) and plebeians (common citizens)

- Triggered by debt crisis in 494 BCE

- Plebeians staged secession from city, refused to serve in army until demands met

- Demands: debt, land distribution, lack of political power

- → Creation of tributes (officials who protected plebeian rights)

Latin Rights

- Privileges to communities in Roman Empire, Latin-speaking

- Rights: conduct trade, intermarry with Romans, own Roman property

- No full Roman citizenship or voting

Roman Citizens Without Voting Rights

- Those w/ citizenship but can't participate in elections

- Usually citizens of provinces or conquered cities

- No direct influence on election of magistrates or law passage

Roman "Commonwealth"

- Association of communities w/ local sovereignty while being bound to Rome (military obligations)

- Italians provided troops, Latins had "Latin Rights", nonvoting municipalities had citizenship

- Rome had control through roads and colonies → large system w/out governance

Aqueducts

- First aqueduct Aqua Appia built by Appius Claudius Caecus 16km

- Sustain urban pop w/ clean water

Colonies

- Military purposes; strategic locations (river crossings, mountain passes, coastal landings)

- 25-30 colonies formed network of fortresses

- Roman colonies were small and coastal; Latin colonies were larger w/ Latin Rights not citizenship

Roman Roads

- Military efficiency → troops and supplied move across empire during any szn

- Linked colonies, reinforcing control

- Appian Way (Appius Claudius) connected Rome to Capua

- Aurelian Way extended up western coast

- Flaminian Way (Gaius Flaminius) linked Rome to Arminium

Straits of Otranto

- Narrow passage connecting Adriatic Sea to Ionian Sea, b/w Italy and Albania

- Maritime route for trade, military, cultural exchange b/w Italy and Greece

- Role in Rome's expansion into eastern Mediterranean (contact w/ Greek colonies)

- Vital for dominance over sea trade

Macedonia

- Became province of Rome during 2nd Punic War

- After defeat of King Perseus in 168 BCE, divided into 4 client republic → province again when Rome annexed it in 148 BCE

- Role in Rome's expansion into Greece and eastern Mediterranean

- Wealthy and military significance

Freedom of the Greeks

- Policy by Rome after defeat of Macedonia is 196 BCE

- General Flamininus declared Greek city-states independent from Macedonian rule

- Freedom was symbolic as Rome had influence over Greek affairs

- Greek later fell under direct Roman control; cities lost autonomy

Pergamum

- Wealthy, powerful Greek kingdom in Asia Minor

- King Attalus III bequeathed his kingdom to Rome, making it the 1st province in Asia

- Marked Rome's expansion into the eastern Mediterranean

- Provided resources and strategic foothold

Promagistrates

- Former magistrates (ex. ex-consuls, ex-praetors) given imperium to govern provinces/lead military campaigns

- Not elected, appointed by Senate or through prorogation

- Allowed Rome to keep expanding w/out constantly electing new magistrates

- Key roles in administering provinces, leading armies, and ensuring Rome's control in faraway regions

- Corruption and conflicts → instability

Provincia (Province)

- Not defined territory, but sphere of command assigned annually by Senate

- Gave military leader control over region w/out direct Roman territorial/administrational claim

- Area where Roman magistrate exercised imperium (command) in military capacity

Provincial Governors

- Held imperium (command); former consuls or praetors serving extra yr as proconsuls

- Little oversight from Rome; reported military matters to Senate

- Could only be prosecuted after term ended

- Lex Pompeia: 5-year gap b/w holding office in Rome and provincial command

- Duties: military leadership, tax collection, jurisdiction; legal authority unclear

Publicans

- Private entrepreneurs who formed partnerships (societas) for large-scale contracts (ex. building projects, military supplies, tax collection)

- Senate set fixed tax revenue expectation and auctioned contracts to publicans, who'd collect taxes for 5 years

- Outsource tax collection w/out formal bureaucracy, but had exploitation

Census

- Held every 5 yrs by censors at Campus Martius

- Mandatory for all Roman citizens even outside Rome

- Moral review esp for equestrians and senators

- Determined political/military obligations and social status

Class and Status

- Defined by both class and status

- Census categorized citizens, but distinctions not always clear (ex. some freedmen wealthier than equestrians)

- "Status society": privileges >> wealth

Equestrians

- Originally cavalrymen w/ horse, but were selected from wealthiest census class w/ Servius

- Became powerful class distinct from senators; req min property amount

- All senators were equestrians, not all equestrians were senators

- Role in administration, business, tax collection

Tabernae (House-Shops)

- Permanent shop-houses; storefront for business and dwelling in back

- Marble Plan of the 3rd century CE → common in Rome

- Backbone of Rome's economy by providing good/services

- Economic mobility, but reflected social divisions

Insulae (Apartment Blocks)

- Multi-story apartment blocks; lower/middle class

- Insulae="island" → separation w/in city

- Rental properties w/ poor conditions (fires, collapses)

- Necessary to sustain urban pop

Grain Distributions (Frumentationes)

- Monthly grain distributions

- Initially sold at reduced price, then free (covering more of unqualified worker's income)

- Excluded senators, equestrians, foreigners

- Maintained social order, but dependency on state support and financial strain on govt

Plebs Media

- Elite subset of plebs (homeowners)

- Distinct from urban poor who relied on frumentationes → homeowners excluded

- Suggests economic stratification among non-elite Romans but w/out political influence

Slave Labor

- Foundational aspect present since 12 Tables

- Enslaved considered property, no legal protections

- Worked in all fields except military → blurred line b/w free and enslaved labor

Slave-Supply

- Sources like warface, reproduction, piracy, slave trade

- Census recorded 110,000 male citizens and 300,000 women, children, and enslaved persons by 476 BCE

- Enslaved ~15-25% of population

- Trade was legal and socially accepted → fueled Roman economy

Slave Society

- Enslaved had critical role in economy, culture, social structure

- >20% of population integral to surplus production

- Rome joined small group of historical slave societies (ex. Classical Athens, West Indies, Brazil, U.S. South)

- But... Rome's slavery more integrated into daily life, lacking racial divisions?

Spartacus

- Revolt of Spartacus: largest slave uprising in Roman history

- Spartacus: Thracian enslaved in a gladiatorial school; led rebellion of 70,000

- Roman Republic deployed 10 legions under Crassus then crucified 6000 of Spartacus' followers

- Highlighted vulnerabilities of Rome's reliance on enslaved labor

Polybius

- Greek historian of Hellenistic period who wrote The Histories abt the rise of Rome

- Wrote of military strength, political institutions, historical cycles

- How Rome became dominant power in Mediterranean

- Was a former hostage of Rome

Mixed Constitution

- Polybius said Rome's govt balanced monarchy (consuls), aristocracy (Senate), and democracy (assemblies)

- Prevented tyranny, oligarchy, mod rule by dividing power

Polybius on the Roman Constitution

- Admired Roman Constitution; balance of power

- Avoided downfall of pure monarchies, oligarchies, or democracies

- Role of checks and balances

Senate

- Advising body of Roman govt

- Assembly decisions req Senate approval

- Former magistrates enrolled by censors; censor qualification

- 300-500 members during Republic

Block Voting System

- Citizens organized into voting groups (ex. centuries or tribes) instead of ind voting

- Votes cast by groups (despite # of electors in each)

- Voting stopped once majority reached

- Favored wealthy; limited pop sovereignty

Centuriate Assembly

- Divided by property class

- 18 cavalry centuries; 170 infantry centuries

- Wealthy citizens had most voting power

- Law-making body that elected consuls/praetors → lawmaking shifted to tribal assemblies

Tribal Assembly

- Elected aediles, questors, minor magistrates

- Vote on laws; important to political system

- Based on residence (urban and rural tribes)

- Less biased towards rich that Centuriate Assembly, but elite ruling through patronage

- Each of 35 tribes had 1 vote; rural tribes had power despite low pop

Plebeian Assembly

- Elected 10 tribunes, who represented plebeian interests

- Lex Hortensia in 287 BCE: laws passed were binding for all Romans

- Challenged patrician authority, advocated for social/economic reforms

Plebiscites

- Laws passed in Plebeian Assembly

- Lex Hortensia in 287 BCE: laws passed were binding for all Romans

- Addressed debt relief, land dist

- Balanced power b/w plebeians and patrician-controlled Senate

Tribes

- Voting units in Tribal and Plebeian assemblies

- Originally, 4 urban, 17 rural → 4 urban, 35 rural

- Assigned during census; determined citizens' voting groups regardless of residence

- Rural tribes had more political influence

- Issues with freedmen and Italians after 90 BCE

Tribune of the Plebs

- Protect plebeian interests against patrician dominance

- 10 tribunes elected annually; could veto laws, magistrates' actions, Senate decisions

- Could convene Plebeian Assembly, propose legislation

- Power was sacrosanct: any harm against was a crime

- Authority limited to Rome

Contiones, or Discussion Meetings

- Non-voting, deliberative meetings for political discussions

- Bills, policies, issues

- Platforms to inform/persuade public to shape opinion before official votes

- Senators, magistrates, etc used to garner support

Canvassing for election

- Actively seeking votes and support

- Appeal directly to citizens (speeches, gifts, promises)

- For elected positions in assemblies where relationships and reputations were vital (consuls, tribunes)

Favor and Canvassing

- Interelated

- Political favor ↔ votes/support

- Benefits like grain, land, goods for loyalty]

- Politicians depended on backing of plebeians or wealthy elites

Catiline

- Lucius Sergius Catiline, a patrician and controversial politician

- Conspiracy to overthrow Republic in 63 BCE

- Veteran of Sulla's army; pursued political office but lost consulship to Cicero

- Plotted violent coup w/ debt-ridden aristocrats and disgruntled veterans

- Cicero exposed him → Catiline fled Rome → raised army, but defeated/killed in 62 BCE

- Desperate reformer rather than a traitor??

Cicero

- Homo novus ("new man") w/ no family history in politics

- Fame by prosecuting corrupt governor Gaius Verres

- Became consul and exposed Catiline's conspiracy

- Exiled in 58 BCe, but returned a year later

- Executed in 43 BCE for speech against Antony after Caesar's assassination

- Great public speaker; speeches live on

Homo novus (new man)

- Roman politician first in family to hold high office

- Break dominance of aristocratic families in Senate

- Relied on personal achievements, oratory, and public favor to rise in politics

- Ex. Cicero used legal success and rhetorical skill for consulship

- Faced resistance from elite who viewed then as outsiders

Caesar

- Crucial role in ending Roman Republic

- Crossed Rubicon in 49 BCE, initiated civil war w/ Pompey and gained unrivaled power

- Dictatorship!!

- Introduced reforms, but authority alarmed Senate → he was assassinated in 44 BCE

- His death triggered another power struggle → paved way for rise of Roman Empire under Augustus

Gracchi

- Gracchi brothers Tiberius and Gaius: reformers, challenged Senate's authority

- Tiberius sought land redistribution to aid poor → murdered by opposition

- Gaius wanted broader reforms too (ex. grain laws, citizenship expansion) → also murdered

- Deaths highlighted growing violence in politics and Senate's resistance to populist reforms

Marius

- Revolutionized Rome's military by removing property qualifications to enlist

- Armies loyal to general, not state

- Held consulship 7 times!

- Rivalry w/ Sulla → Rome's first large-scale civil war

- Strengthened military commanders' political power → Republic's decline

Pompey

- Roman general; defeated Mediterranean pirates, expanded Rome's eastern territories

- First Triumvirate: Pompey, Crassus, Caesar

- Crassus provided money for Pompey and Caesar to gain power

- Later clashed w/ Caesar in civil war

- Defeated at Pharsalus → fled to Egypt → assassinated

Sulla

- First Roman general to march on Rome and seize power

- Dictator

- Enacted pro-Senate reforms and urged enemies through proscriptions

- Retired voluntarily, but use of force influenced other leaders (ex. Caesar)

Senatus Consultum Ultimum (Ultimate Decree of the Senate)

- Emergency decree allowing consuls absolute authority to protect Republic

- First used against Tiberius Gracchus in 133 BCE for Senate to justify violent suppression of political threats

- Tool for eliminating opponents → destabilizing Republic

Auspices

- Key religious practice

- Magistrates observed bird behavior to interpret gods' will before public actions

- Augurs as experts/witnesses, but final decision was magistrates'

- All official state business (ex. elections, military campaigns) preceded w/ auspices

- Could be manipulated for political obstruction

Public Religion

- No state-religion imposed on all citizens

- Rome publicly funded religious practices

- Cults performed on behalf of citizens

- Major public festivals, such as the Ludi Romani, reinforced civic unity

Votive

- Gift given to deity as thanks for fulfilling a vow

- Ex. clay representations of healed body parts for healing

- Public officials/generals gave large-scale votives to honor military successes (ex. temples or altars)

Livy

- Roman historian; chronicled from mythical origins to his own time

- Our knowledge of historiographical tradition of early Rome from Cicero and Livy

- Relied on legend sometimes, but still a key source

Admired Rome's past, saw moral decline in his era