Philosophy Final

God

a posteriori knowledge

knowledge that is justified solely on the basis of experience
Examples include most fields of science and aspects of personal knowledge.

Metaphysical Dualism

the belief that there are two kinds of reality: material (physical) and immaterial (spiritual)
physical bodies and non-physical minds
God and the world, matter and spirit, body and mind, and good and evil.

Special Metaphysics

focuses on freedom of the will, immortality, and mind-body problem
treats of tke world, of man, and of God;
cosmology, rational psychology, and natural theology
Typical issues include transcendence, being, existence in its individual and communal dimensions, causality, relations, analogy, purpose, the possibility of metaphysics, and the relations of metaphysics to other disciplines.

Empiricism

the view that (a) knowledge comes from experience via the senses, and (b) science flourishes through observation and experiment.
emphasizes evidence, especially as discovered in experiments

A priori Knowledge

The knowledge acquired without experience (space and time). Understood as analytical knowledge (deductive knowledge)
Every mother has had a child" is an a priori statement, since it shows simple logical reasoning and isn't a statement of fact about a specific case
mathematics, tautologies, and deduction from pure reason.

Kant's "Copernican revolution" in philosophy

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suggests that objects do not exist independently of our minds
it is the representation that makes the object possible rather than the object that makes the representation possible.

Transcendentalism

any system of philosophy emphasizing the intuitive and spiritual above the empirical and material
a personal knowledge of God, believing that no intermediary was needed for spiritual insight.
believed in numerous values, however they can all be condensed into three basic, essential values: individualism, idealism, and the divinity of nature.

Critique of Practical Reason
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Kant claimed that humans are free when their actions are governed by reason. Reason (what he sometimes called the "noumenal self") is in some sense independent of the rest of the agent, allowing the agent to choose morally.

faculties of reason

Kant-His function argument. Concerns faculty of reason in one of its three basic forms (logical, theoretical, practical). A practical use: Reasoning about what todo: determining our choices to action on the basis of reasons (viz. for a certain aim, from some incentive, with some motive)The will is a practical use of our reasoning faculty to determine our choices

"A being arranged purposively for life, we assume as a principle that no instrument is to be encountered in it for any end except that which is the most suitable to and appropriate for it."

"I think therefore I am"
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Rene Descartes
HUMAN SELF
a thinking entity that doubts, understands, analyzes, questions, and reasons.
the SELF as a THINKING entity, the self as a PHYSICAL body:
Two dimensions of the human self
SOUL
as non-material, immortal, conscious being, and independent of the physical laws of the universe.
PHYSICAL BODY:
is a material, mortal, non-thinking entity, full governed by the physical laws of nature.
INDEPENDENT:
the soul and body is like this and each can exist and function without one another

Metaphysics of Nature

pure part of physics
must determine the laws of nature as an object of experience

Subject - object relationship

A subject is a being who has a unique consciousness and/or unique personal experiences, or an entity that has a relationship with another entity that exists outside itself (called an "object"). A subject is an observer and an object is a thing observed.
An object as anything that we can think or talk about
The subject is a thinking thing that is not extended
the object is an extended thing which does not think.

Phaedo
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Work by Plato. Depicting the death of Socrates, it explores the concept of afterlife and introduces Plato's concept of forms.
One of the main themes in the Phaedo is the idea that the soul is immortal

fundamentum inconcussum

The desire for certainty- you have to start with a firm foundation- start where you are and try to find the unshakeable foundation
- Latin phrased used by Descartes in reference to the cognito as the clear and distinct idea upon the whole of knowledge is to be rebuilt.- It simply means "firm foundation"

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
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Italian astronomer and mathematician. Developed his laws of motion, establishing the study of physics. The first to use a telescope to observe the heavens.
Galileo was one of the first to argue that man could hope to understand how the world works, and, moreover, that we could do this by observing the real world

Erasmus
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Dutch humanist and theologian who was the leading Renaissance scholar of northern Europe
He embraced the humanistic belief in an individual's capacity for self-improvement and the fundamental role of education in raising human beings above the level of brute animals. The thrust of Erasmus' educational programme was the promotion of docta pietas, learned piety, or what he termed the "philosophy of Christ"

Meditations on First Philosophy
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Descartes's book on philosophy where he searches for the right epistemology

Critique of Pure Reason
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(1781) An influential book by Inmanuel Kant that helped to summarize the romantic movement by describing how in areas where science couldn't prove or disprove concepts people are justified in having faith.

Intuitions of Space and Time
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Kant has argued that space is merely the form of outer intuition, and not a property of nor a system of relations between independently real things in themselves. Likewise, time is merely the form of inner intuition.

concepts/categories

to uncover the various models and presuppositions — the concepts and categories — that men bring to their existence and that help form that existence.
Concepts are the building blocks of thoughts.
Category, in logic, a term used to denote the several most general or highest types of thought forms or entities, or to denote any distinction such that, if a form or entity belonging to one category is substituted into a statement in place of one belonging to another, a nonsensical assertion must result.
The four main branches of philosophy are metaphysics, epistemology, axiology, and logic. Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that considers the physical universe and the nature of ultimate reality

Descartes' Method of Doubt
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Consider all beliefs that are not certainly true to be false. Either we are dreaming or being attacked by a malicious demon.

Descartes' Dream Hypothesis
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The entire reality that you perceive is actually a dream and that there are no external beings outside of your own thoughts
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In the Dream argument, Descartes argues that he often dreams of things that seem real to him while he is asleep. In one dream, he sits by a fire in his room, and it seems he can feel the warmth of the fire, just as he feels it in his waking life, even though there is no fire. The fact that he feels the fire doesn't really allow him to tell when he is awake and when he is dreaming. Moreover, if his senses can convey to him the heat of the fire when he does not really feel it, he can't trust that the fire exists when he feels it in his waking life.His point is to demonstrate that the senses can be deceived. If we cannot trust our senses to convey true information about the world around us, then we also can't trust deductions we've made on the grounds of sense perception.

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Can't distinguish dreams from awakening experience. Hence he could be dreaming all the time.The objects I experience in my dreams might not really exist.Therefore, material objects might not really exist.First Premise- Claims I've been awake at some point. If life was a dream I have no awaking experince to compare.

What is Enlightenment?

The man's release from his self-incurred tutelage.

"man's inability to make use of his understanding without direction from another".
Kant

Originary Intuition

in philosophy, the power of obtaining knowledge that cannot be acquired either by inference or observation, by reason or experience
Gerd Gigerenzer

Main periods in the history of philosophy

Pre-Socratic (7th - 5th Century B.C.)
Socratic (5th - 4th Century B.C.)
Hellenistic (3rd Century B.C. - 3th Century A.D.)
Roman (1st Century B.C. - 5th Century A.D.)
ancient, medieval, Renaissance, modern, and contemporary.

Spinoza & Leibniz

Like Leibniz, Spinoza could distinguish between two senses in which relations might be grounded, namely, ontologically and semantically. He could then maintain that any relation of co-existence holding between two attributes or modes must be ontologically grounded in minds—and in particular in the divine intellect.

Spinoza says that God has only one world to choose from, namely, the one that follows ineluctably from its own Nature. Leibniz counters that God always has the option not to create the world; and, when God decides to go ahead with the project, he faces a choice among an infinite number of possible worlds.

Locke and Hume

Both were Empiricists. That means that they recognized the reality of sense impressions, and then built their philosophy up from there.

Emphasized sensory experience as the basis of knowledge; emphasized that sensory experiences could be associated or lined; Laws of Association, empiricism

Locke considers personal identity to be founded on consciousness, and not on the substance of either the soul or the body. While Hume argues that identity is nothing but exists on the relations of causation, contiguity, and resemblances obtained among the perceptions.

Kierkegaard and Nietzsche

Kierkegaard and Nietzsche both felt that life is irrational. They were problem thinkers who chose not to follow the systematic approach to philosophy as their predecessors did. In this regard, they stood on common ground.

Nietzsche arrived at Kierkegaard's idea that "the crowd is untruth": the so-called autonomous, self-legislating individual is nothing but a herd animal that has trained itself to docility and unfreedom by conforming to the "universal" standards of morality.

Kierkegaard believed in God and Nietzsche said God was dead.

Luther and Calvin

Calvin's view of God is quite similar to that of Luther. The difference between the two is primarily a matter of emphasis rather than a matter of content. For Calvin, God is strictly a personal being whose omnipotence controls everything. Like Luther, he held that God is absolute sovereign.

Calvinism salvation belief is that of predestination (chosen few) whereas Lutheranism believes any one can attain salvation through faith. 3. Calvinism stresses the absolute sovereignty of God whereas Lutheranism believes man has some control over certain aspects in his life.

Ontological argument for the existence of God

Since the idea of a most perfect Being exists, it must come from a most perfect Being (5).

1) God is GREATER than anything anyone could ever CONCIEVE of.2) Even the FOOL KNOWS in his heart that this is the defintion of God.3) Therefore, God exists in the UNDERSTANDING.4) It is BETTER to exist in REALITY than it is to exist in the UNDERSTANDING alone.5) THAT MEANS I am now able to conceive Premise (1), but the thing I conceive exists in reality, and so I CAN CONCIEVE OF SOMETHING GREATER THAN GOD6) That is IMPOSSIBLE, according to the definition in Premise (1).7) Therefore, God exists in both Reality and in the Understanding.

Metaphysics (nature of reality)
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Name the branch of philosophy; Are human beings basically good or is it the essential nature of human being evil?

Augustine and Anselm
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It is vital to note that Anselm and Aquinas both accept the existence of God; therefore, the existence of God is not in question for them.

Augustine believes we have free will All things God created are good, Evil is not good, therefor, God did not create evil

Metaphysics of Morals
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The idea stemmed from a rational view of humanity and its ability to determine moral good and evil based solely on that rationalit

Phenomena and Noumena
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Phenomena refers to the world of "becoming"; that is the world of everyday life.
PHENOMENA = BECOMING

Noumena refers to the world of "Being"; that is the "world" that makes the world of phenomena possible. NOUMENA = BEING

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Phenomena are the appearances, which constitute the our experience; noumena are the (presumed) things themselves, which constitute reality. All of our synthetic a priori judgments apply only to the phenomenal realm, not the noumenal.

clear and distinct ideas
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A clear idea is 'present and accessible to the attentive mind'; a distinct idea is clear and also sharply separated from other ideas so that every part of it is clear.

defined by Descartes as those perceptions which are so self-evident that, while they are held in the mind, they cannot logically be doubted.