Senate Statewide Elections

Election in which all voters in an entire state vote to choose their U.S. Senator

Congressional Districts

Electoral divisions used to elect representatives to the United States House of Representatives, each district usually contains roughly equal populations.

Gerrymandering

The practice of manipulating the boundaries of electoral districts to favor one party over another, often resulting in unequal representation.

Racial Gerrymandering

The practice of drawing electoral district boundaries that deliberately disadvantage or advantage voters based on their race, often violating the Voting Rights Act.

Partisan Gerrymandering

The manipulation of electoral district boundaries to favor a particular political party, often undermining fair representation.

Redistricting

Process of redrawing the boundaries of voting districts

Shelby County v. Holder

Major Court case about the Voting Rights Act of 1965, specifically its preclearance (racially discriminated states needing preclearance (federal approval) before changing any voting laws).

Census & Appointment

Official count of the U.S. population that happens every 10 years, and collects basic information about how many people live in each state.

process of dividing the 435 seats in the U.S. House of Representatives among the states based on population numbers from census.

Party Unity Vote

a vote in Congress (House or Senate) in which a majority of members of one political party vote the same way on a bill or issue, and that vote is opposed by a majority of the other party

Bipartisanship

when members of both major political parties (Democrats and Republicans) work together to pass laws or solve problems

Filibuster

a tactic used in the U.S. Senate to delay or block a vote on a bill by speaking for a long time or using other procedural methods

Appropriations Committees

congressional committees in the House and Senate that are responsible for deciding how the federal government spends money

Veto

the power of the president to reject a bill passed by Congress, preventing it from becoming law

Override

when Congress passes a bill into law despite a presidential veto. requires a two-third vote in both the House and Senate

Pocket Veto

type of presidential veto that happens automatically when the president does not sign a bill, and Congress adjourns within 10 days of sending the bill, so the bill does not become law.

Expressed Powers

powers specifically written in the U.S. Constitution that are granted to Congress (or sometimes the president). Also called enumerated powers

Implied Powers

powers not specifically written in the Constitution but are assumed to exist so that Congress can carry out its expressed powers.

Delegated and Inherent Powers

Also called enumerated or expressed powers, these are powers specifically given to the federal government by the Constitution. Example: Congress has the power to declare war or coin money.

These are powers that the federal government naturally has because it is a sovereign nation, even if not written in the Constitution. Example: The U.S. can control borders or conduct foreign affairs.

delegated = written in the Constitution, inherent = come naturally with being a country.

Political Forbearance

when government officials choose not to enforce a law or rule strictly, even though they have the legal power to do so.

Commander in Chief

the president’s role as the leader of the U.S. armed forces.

• Includes the Army, Navy, Air Force, Marines, and Space Force.

• The president can direct military operations, but Congress declares war and controls funding.

• This role gives the president civilian control over the military.

Line of Succession

the official order of people who would become president if the current president dies, resigns, or is removed from office. Starts with the Vice President, then the Speaker of the House, then the President pro tempore of the Senate, followed by Cabinet members in a specific order. Established by the Presidential Succession Act.

Vice President’s Role in Senate

the constitutional leader of the Senate, but in practice their actual involvement is limited — mainly showing up to break ties or run certain ceremonial proceedings.

Executive Orders

an official directive issued by the president that manages operations of the federal government. Has the force of law but does not require Congress to approve.

Requirements for Executive Orders

the rules that determine when and how the president can issue them.

• Must be based on the president’s constitutional or statutory authority (the president can’t make laws from scratch).

• Must be directed at federal agencies or officials, not directly at private citizens.

• Must be published in the Federal Register so the public and agencies are informed.

• Can be reviewed by courts to make sure they don’t exceed presidential power.

“Going Public”

when the president speaks directly to the American people to try to gain support for policies or pressure Congress to act. Ex: Obama with selfie stick

Recess Appointment

when the president temporarily fills a federal position while the Senate is not in session, without the Senate’s immediate approval.

Executive Agreement

an agreement between the president and the leader of another country that does not require Senate approval.

Trump v. U.S. (2024)

Supreme Court case that decided a former president has limited immunity from criminal prosecution for actions taken while in office.

• Official acts as president may be protected.

• Unofficial acts are not protected and can still be prosecuted.

• The Court left it to lower courts to decide which actions qualify.

Oversight of the Executive Branch

the power of Congress to monitor, supervise, and check the actions of the president and federal agencies.

Impeachment

the formal process by which a legislative body (like the U.S. Congress) charges a government official, including the president, with wrongdoing.

Plaintiff

the person or party who brings a lawsuit in a court, claiming that they were wronged or harmed by another party.

Defendant

the person or party who is being accused or sued in a court case.

Criminal Law

the branch of law that deals with actions considered harmful to society and defines crimes and their punishments.

Civil Law

the branch of law that deals with disputes between individuals, organizations, or businesses.

Precedent

a legal decision or ruling from a previous case that courts use as an example when deciding future cases.

Stare Decisis

legal principle meaning “let the decision stand.” It requires courts to follow precedents—previous court rulings—when deciding new cases with similar facts.

Plea Bargain

an agreement in a criminal case where the defendant pleads guilty to a lesser charge or receives a lighter sentence in exchange for avoiding a full trial.

Writ of Certiorari

an order from a higher court (usually the U.S. Supreme Court) telling a lower court to send up a case so the higher court can review it. It’s how most cases reach the Supreme Court.

Writ of Habeas Corpus

a legal order that requires the government to bring a person in custody before a court to show a valid reason for their detention. Protects people from unlawful imprisonment.

Due Process

the constitutional principle that the government must follow fair procedures and respect legal rights before taking a person’s life, liberty, or property. Founded in the 5th and 14th Amendments.

Judicial Review

the power of the courts—especially the U.S. Supreme Court—to examine laws, government actions, or executive orders and determine whether they are constitutional. If something violates the Constitution, the courts can strike it down.

Supreme Court Size is Set by Who?

Congress

Confirmation Process

the procedure by which the U.S. Senate reviews, questions, and votes on whether to approve (confirm) the President’s nominees for certain government positions—most notably federal judges, cabinet members, and Supreme Court justices.

Amicus Curiae Brief

a written argument submitted to a court by someone who is not a party in the case but has a strong interest in the outcome. It provides additional information, expertise, or perspectives to help the court make its decision.

Concurring Opinion

separate written opinion by a judge or justice who agrees with the court’s final decision but for different reasons or wants to add additional points.

Dissenting Opinion

a written opinion by a judge or justice who disagrees with the court’s majority decision and explains why they believe the majority is wrong.

Majority Opinion

the official written decision of a court, supported by more than half of the judges or justices, explaining the court’s ruling and the legal reasoning behind it.

Originalism

a judicial philosophy that interprets the Constitution according to the original meaning or intent of the text at the time it was written. It argues that judges should apply the Constitution based on how a reasonable person in that historical period would have understood it.

Judicial Activism

a judicial philosophy in which judges are more willing to interpret the Constitution broadly, strike down laws, or create new legal standards—often to address social, political, or economic issues. It suggests the courts should play an active role in shaping policy when other branches fail to act.

Living Constitutionalism/Judicial Conservatism

the view that the Constitution’s meaning can evolve over time as society changes. Judges using this philosophy interpret the Constitution in a flexible way, considering modern values, conditions, and problems.

the philosophy that judges should be cautious and restrained, sticking closely to the Constitution’s original meaning and to precedent. Judicial conservatives avoid making new policy from the bench and prefer leaving major changes to Congress and voters.

Incorporation

the legal process by which the Bill of Rights is applied to the states through the 14th Amendment’s Due Process Clause.

First Amendment: establishment clause

prohibits the government from creating an official religion, endorsing one religion over another, or favoring religion over non-religion.

First Amendment: free exercise clause

protects individuals’ right to practice their religion freely without government interference.

“Wall of Separation”

a metaphor for the principle that government and religion should remain separate, preventing the government from establishing or endorsing religion.

Prior Restraint

a government action that prevents speech or expression from being published or broadcast before it actually occurs.

Political Speech

any expression—spoken, written, or symbolic—that comments on government, public issues, policies, or political candidates. It is highly protected under the First Amendment.

Libel

a false and written statement (or published in some permanent form) that damages a person’s reputation. Type of defamation.

Slander

a hateful, false, and spoken statement that damages a person’s reputation.

Second Amendment

protects an individual’s right to possess a firearm for lawful purposes, including self-defense in the home, as affirmed by the Supreme Court in District of Columbia v. Heller (2008).

Due Process Clause

requires that state and local governments must respect all legal rights owed to a person and follow fair procedures before depriving someone of life, liberty, or property.

Equal Protection Clause

part of the 14th Amendment and requires that states treat all people equally under the law. Brown v. Board of Education.

Right to Privacy

the constitutional principle that individuals have a degree of personal freedom from government intrusion in certain private matters. Griswold v. Connecticut (1965) and Roe v. Wade (1973).

Selective Incorporation

the legal process by which the Supreme Court applies certain protections in the Bill of Rights to the states through the 14th Amendment’s Due Process Clause, one right at a time.

Eminent Domain

the government’s power to take private property for public use, but the owner must be given just compensation. Based on the 5th Amendment.

Exclusionary Rule

a legal principle that prohibits the use of evidence obtained illegally—such as through an unreasonable search or seizure—from being used in court against a defendant. Enforced through the 4th Amendment.

Palko v. Connecticut

Supreme Court case that established the doctrine of selective incorporation, deciding that only certain “fundamental rights” in the Bill of Rights apply to the states through the 14th Amendment’s Due Process Clause.

District of Columbia v. Heller

Supreme Court case that held the Second Amendment protects an individual right to possess a firearm, specifically for self-defense within the home.

Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization

Supreme Court decision that overturned Roe v. Wade and ruled that the Constitution does not guarantee a right to abortion.

Civil Rights

legal protections that guarantee equal treatment and ensure individuals are not discriminated against by the government or by others based on characteristics like race, gender, religion, or disability.

Equal Protection Clause

requires that states treat all people equally under the law and not discriminate without a valid reason.

Jim Crow Laws

state and local laws in the American South that enforced racial segregation and discrimination against African Americans from the late 1800s to the mid-1900s.

13th Amendment

Free slaves

14th Amendment

Black men are citizens of U.S.

15th Amendment

Black men have the right to vote

Political Participation During Reconstruction

refers to the period after the Civil War (1865–1877) when formerly enslaved African Americans gained major political rights and became actively involved in government and civic life.

Brown v. Board of Education

Supreme Court case that ruled racial segregation in public schools is unconstitutional because it violates the 14th Amendment’s Equal Protection Clause. Overturned Plessy v. Ferguson’s “Separate but Equal doctrine.

Desegregation & Implementation Limits

process of ending racial segregation, especially in public schools, housing, and public facilities. It aims to eliminate legally enforced separation between racial groups.

describes the challenges and barriers that slowed or weakened desegregation efforts after court rulings like Brown v. Board of Education.

Loving v. Virginia

Supreme Court case that struck down laws banning interracial marriage, ruling that such bans violated the 14th Amendment’s Equal Protection and Due Process Clauses.

Seneca Falls Convention

first major women’s rights convention in the United States, held in Seneca Falls, New York. It marked the official beginning of the women’s suffrage and equality movement. Organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott.

19th Amendment

Gave women the right to vote; women’s suffrage.

Chinese Exclusion Act (1882)

first major U.S. federal law to ban immigration based on nationality or race, specifically targeting Chinese laborers.

Stonewall Uprising (1969)

series of spontaneous protests by LGBTQ+ community members in June 1969 after a police raid on the Stonewall Inn, a gay bar in New York City.

Affirmative Action

refers to policies or programs that aim to increase opportunities for historically disadvantaged groups—especially in education, employment, and government contracting.

Strict Scrutiny

the highest level of judicial review used by courts to evaluate laws that affect fundamental rights or involve suspect classifications like race.

Race-Conscious vs. Race-Neutral Admissions

Admissions policies that consider an applicant’s race as one factor among many when evaluating candidates.

Admissions practices that do not consider race at all.

Recent Supreme Court Limits on Affirmative Action

Fair Admissions v. Harvard College and Students for Fair Admissions v. University of North Carolina; violated the Equal Protection Clause of the U.S.

Medicare vs. Medicaid

65+ senior citizens;

people with low income

DACA (Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals)

U.S. immigration policy created in 2012 that allows certain undocumented individuals who were brought to the United States as children to receive temporary protection from deportation and eligibility for a work permit.

United Nations and UN Security Council

international organization founded in 1945 to promote peace, security, human rights, and cooperation among nations.

15-member body within the UN responsible for maintaining international peace and security. Has 5 permanent members with veto power

Types of Taxes

Income Tax – A tax on individual or business earnings.

Payroll Tax – Deducted from wages to fund Social Security and

Medicare Sales Tax – A tax on purchased goods and services, usually added at the point of sale.

Property Tax – A tax on real estate or personal property, often funding local services like schools.

Excise Tax – Taxes on specific goods or activities, such as gasoline, tobacco, or alcohol.

Tariffs – Taxes on imported goods.

Foreign Policy strategies

• Containment: Stop the spread of a hostile power or ideology.

• Preventive War: Attack first to prevent a future threat.

• Deterrence: Threaten retaliation to prevent an attack.

• Appeasement: Give in to an aggressor to avoid conflict.