History Term 5/7/25

Terminology Assessment

Bill of exchange

A written order used in trade that binds one party to pay a fixed amount of money to another party at a predetermined future date.

Commutation

In a historical or religious context, the substitution of one kind of payment or penance for another (e.g., money instead of a service or punishment)

Merchant bank

A financial institution involved in international finance, underwriting, and business loans, primarily serving businesses rather than individuals.

Martin Luther

A German monk and theologian who initiated the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century by challenging the teachings and practices of the Catholic Church.

95 Theses

A list of propositions written by Martin Luther in 1517 that criticized Church practices, especially the sale of indulgences, and called for reform.

Catholic Church

The largest Christian church, led by the Pope, with a long-standing hierarchical structure and a tradition of sacraments, rituals, and doctrine.

Protestantism

A branch of Christianity that originated with the Reformation; it rejects the authority of the Pope and emphasizes direct access to the Bible and salvation through faith alone.

Indulgences

Grants by the Catholic Church that reduced the amount of punishment one had to undergo for sins; often sold in the Middle Ages, sparking controversy.

Good works

Actions such as charity, prayer, and penance that are considered by some Christian traditions as part of the process of achieving salvation.

Justification by faith

A key Protestant belief that a person is made righteous and granted salvation by faith in Jesus Christ, not by works or religious rituals.

Purgatory

In Catholic doctrine, a temporary state after death where souls are purified before entering heaven.

Enlightenment

Intellectual movement influenced by global exchanges that began in the 15th-century Atlantic World, which challenged traditional authority and emphasized reason and human progress.

Philosophes

Enlightenment-era thinkers whose ideas were shaped by the early global connections of the Atlantic World, using reason to critique society, politics, and colonial practices.

Empiricism

The idea that knowledge is derived from experience (5 senses).

Deism

The belief that God created everything but hasn’t intervened since.

Epistemology

The study of knowledge; what we know.

René Descartes

A vital philosopher who lived during the Scientific Revolution. Descartes believed in the world from a mind/matter perspective; “I think, therefore I am.”

Rationalism

Theory that states that you can gain knowledge through ways outside of just your sense experience.

Induction

Reasoning from specific observations to general conclusions.

Deduction

Reasoning from general principles to specific conclusions.

Isaac Newton

The founder of classical physics; a prominent scientist/thinker of the revolution who showed that the world operated under “natural laws.”

Christian Humanism

Belief in not having the priest interpret the bible, which allowed for more of an individual and direct relationship with God

Humanism

A belief in human value, reason, and the potential for individual and societal improvement.

Renaissance Humanism

A revival of classical learning that emphasized human potential and achievements, often within a Christian context.

Enlightenment Humanism

A focus on reason, science, and secularism to advance human rights, knowledge, and progress.

Protestant Reformation

A religious, political and intellectual movement that challenged the authority of the Catholic church. Proceeding the corruption in the church.

Protenstantism

Rejects the authority of the pope and emphasizes direct access to the Bible and salvation through faith alone.

Charles V

Roman emperor whose role in the reformation was to defend Catholicism, growing his empire doing so.

Human nature

Encompasses the fundamental characteristics, both innate and learned, that distinguish humans as a species.