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Adolescence

The transitional stage of development between childhood and adulthood, typically involving puberty and significant cognitive, emotional, and social changes."

Adulthood

The stage of development that follows adolescence and is characterized by full physical and psychological maturity, including the ability to take on adult responsibilities."

Aggression

Behaviors intended to harm or threaten others, which can be physical or verbal."

Animism, The belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities or can be endowed with a spirit or consciousness.

Aphasia

A language disorder that results from damage to the brain, affecting the ability to speak, understand, read, or write."

Assimilation, The process of incorporating new information into existing cognitive schemas without changing the structure of the schema.

Attachment

The emotional bond that forms between an infant and their caregiver, which is crucial for social and emotional development."

Authoritarian Parenting

A parenting style characterized by strict rules, high expectations, and little warmth or flexibility."

Authoritative Parenting

A parenting style that is characterized by reasonable demands, responsiveness, and the use of reasoning in discipline."

Babbling Stage

The early stage of speech development in infants where they produce repetitive consonant-vowel combinations, usually between 4 to 6 months old."

Behaviorism, A psychological perspective that emphasizes observable behaviors and the role of the environment in shaping behavior through conditioning.

Biological Preparedness, The concept that humans and animals are genetically predisposed to learn certain behaviors more easily than others due to evolutionary advantages.

Cognition

Mental processes involved in acquiring, storing, and using information, including perception, memory, and problem-solving."

Cognitive Map, A mental representation of the physical environment that helps individuals navigate or understand spatial relationships.

Cognitive Learning

A type of learning that involves understanding, thinking, and mental processing rather than just responding to stimuli."

Conditioned Reinforcer

A stimulus or event that has acquired reinforcing properties through association with primary reinforcers (e.g., money)."

Conditioned Response, A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus

A previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, evokes a conditioned response."

Conservation

The understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance, typically developed in the concrete operational stage."

Critical Period, A specific time during development when certain skills or abilities are most easily learned or acquired.

Cross-sectional Study, A research method that involves studying different groups of individuals at the same time to draw conclusions about developmental changes.

Dementia

A decline in cognitive function, affecting memory, reasoning, and other mental abilities, often seen in older adults."

Developmental Psychology, The branch of psychology focused on studying the psychological growth and changes that occur throughout the lifespan.

Discrimination

The ability to distinguish between different stimuli, or the act of treating someone unfairly based on certain characteristics."

Ecological Systems Theory

A framework for understanding human development in the context of various environmental systems, from the immediate family to larger societal influences."

Egocentrism

The inability to see things from another person's perspective, commonly observed in young children."

Emerging Adulthood

A period of development typically between ages 18-25, characterized by exploration, identity formation, and the transition to full adulthood."

Extinction, The process by which a conditioned response decreases or disappears when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

A condition caused by alcohol consumption during pregnancy, leading to developmental and physical disabilities in the child."

Fixed-Interval Schedule, A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement is provided after a fixed amount of time has passed.

Fluid Intelligence

The ability to reason and think abstractly, which tends to decline with age."

Formal Operational Stage

The fourth stage of Piaget’s theory, occurring from around age 12 onward, characterized by the ability to think logically about abstract concepts."

Gender Identity

A person's internal sense of their gender, which may or may not align with the gender assigned at birth."

Gender Typing, The process by which individuals acquire behaviors and traits considered appropriate for their gender in a given society.

Grammar

The system of rules that govern the structure of language, including syntax (sentence structure) and morphology (word formation)."

Habituation

The decrease in response to a repeated stimulus over time, showing that the individual has become accustomed to it."

Higher-order Conditioning, A form of learning where a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus by being paired with an already established conditioned stimulus.

Imprinting, A process in which certain animals form attachments during a critical period in their development.

Insecure Attachment

A type of attachment characterized by anxiety or avoidance in the relationship with the caregiver, often seen in children with inconsistent caregiving."

Insight

The sudden realization of a solution to a problem, often occurring after a period of contemplation."

Instinctive Drift

The tendency for animals to revert to instinctual behaviors, even after learning a conditioned response."

Intimacy

The ability to form close, emotional connections with others, typically associated with relationships in adulthood."

Latent Learning, Learning that occurs but is not immediately expressed until there is a reason to demonstrate it.

Learned Helplessness

A condition in which a person or animal learns that they have no control over their environment and thus stops trying to change it, even when opportunities to do so arise."

Linguistic Relativism

The theory that language influences thought and perception, suggesting that different languages may shape the way people think about the world."

Longitudinal Study, A research method that involves studying the same group of individuals over an extended period of time to observe changes and developments.

Maturation

The process of natural growth and development, guided by genetic factors, that occurs independently of experience."

Menarche

The first menstruation in females, marking the onset of puberty."

Mesosystem

In Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory, the interactions between different microsystems (e.g., home, school)."

Modeling, The process of learning by observing and imitating others.

Negative Punishment, The removal of a pleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior.

Negative Reinforcement, The removal of an unpleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.

Object Permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are not visible, developed during the sensorimotor stage."

Observational Learning, Learning that occurs by watching others and imitating their behavior.

Operant Conditioning

A type of learning where behavior is controlled by consequences, such as reinforcement or punishment."

Overgeneralization

The tendency to apply a learned behavior or rule too broadly, such as applying grammatical rules incorrectly."

Partial Reinforcement Schedule

A reinforcement schedule where behavior is reinforced only some of the time, which leads to more persistent behavior."

Permissive Parenting

A parenting style characterized by low demands and high responsiveness, with few rules or restrictions."

Phoneme, The smallest unit of sound in a language that can distinguish words.

Positive Punishment, The addition of an unpleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior.

Primary Reinforcer

A naturally reinforcing stimulus, such as food or water, that satisfies a basic biological need."

Primary Sex Characteristics

The physical characteristics directly related to reproduction, such as genitalia."

Psychosocial Development

The development of an individual's social relationships, emotional responses, and self-concept across the lifespan."

Punishment, A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again.

Reinforcement, A consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again.

Reinforcement Schedule

A rule that determines how often a behavior will be reinforced, such as fixed or variable schedules."

Relational Aggression

Aggressive behaviors intended to harm social relationships or status, often seen in social manipulation."

Respondent Behavior

Behavior that is automatically triggered by specific stimuli, often associated with classical conditioning."

Schema, A cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information.

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Physical traits that differentiate the sexes but are not directly related to reproduction, such as body hair or breast development."

Secure Attachment

A type of attachment characterized by comfort and trust between a child and caregiver, often leading to healthy emotional development."

Self-Concept

An individual's perception of themselves, including their beliefs, values, and behaviors."

Semantics

The study of meaning in language, including the meanings of words and sentences."

Sensorimotor Stage

Piaget's first stage of cognitive development, occurring from birth to about 2 years old, where infants learn about the world through their senses and actions."

Separation Anxiety, Distress and anxiety experienced by infants when separated from their primary caregivers.

Shaping, A process in operant conditioning where successive approximations of a desired behavior are reinforced.

Social Identity

The part of an individual's identity that is based on group memberships, such as gender, race, or social roles."

Social Learning Theory

The theory that people learn from observing others and imitating their behaviors, often reinforced by rewards or punishments."

Spermarche

The first ejaculation in males, marking the onset of puberty."

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of a conditioned response after a period of extinction, without additional conditioning."

Strange Situation, An experimental procedure used to assess the attachment style of infants by observing their reactions to separation and reunion with their caregiver.

Stranger Anxiety

The fear of unfamiliar people, typically observed in infants during the sensorimotor stage."

Superstition

A belief or behavior that is mistakenly believed to bring about a desired outcome, often due to a coincidental association with reinforcement."

Taste Aversion

A conditioned response where an individual associates the taste of a food with illness or discomfort, leading to avoidance of that food."

Temperament

The natural mood, emotional reactivity, and behavior tendencies of an individual, often observed from an early age."

Testosterone

A hormone primarily associated with male development, but also present in females, playing a role in puberty, sexual development, and behavior."

Theory of Mind

The ability to understand that others have thoughts, beliefs, and feelings different from one's own."

Two-word Stage

A stage in language development when toddlers begin to use two-word combinations, typically between 18 and 24 months."

Unconditioned Response

A natural, unlearned reaction to a stimulus, such as salivation when food is placed in the mouth."

Unconditioned Stimulus

A stimulus that naturally triggers an unconditioned response, like food causing salivation."

Variable-Ratio Schedule, A reinforcement schedule where reinforcement is provided after a varying number of responses.

Visual Cliff, An experimental setup used to test depth perception in infants by creating the illusion of a drop-off.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), The range of tasks that a learner can perform with guidance but cannot yet perform independently.