Bio 102 Exam 3 Richard Mccain

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Animal body size

Unicellular organisms get nutrients through diffusion

cell sized constrained by surface to area to volume ratio

larger organisms have more cells, not larger cells

Limits on body size

1. Gravity

2. drag

3. skeleton weight

4. surface area to volume ration in supporting skeletons and heat dissipation

Basal Metabolic Rate

Average amount of energy used by an organisms in a non-active state

Bioenergetics: Endotherms

Maintain relatively constant body temp

Metabolic rate

Amount of energy expended by an animal over a specific time

Size and BMR

Smaller endotherms have higher BMR and vice versa

Active animals have a higher BMR

Ectotherms have lower BMR

Evolution of tissues

Parazoa lack defined tissues and organs

• ability to disaggregate and aggregate their cells

Eumetazoa have distinct and well defined tissues

• haver irreversible differentiation for most cell types

• possess unique tissues, absent in fungi and plants

Epithelial Tissue

Classified by number of layer and shape of the cell

Single layer(Simple)vsMultiple layers(Stratified)

Shape of epithelial tissue

Squamous - flat irregular round shape

Cuboidal - cube shaped, central nucleus

Columnar - tall, narrow, nuculeus toward base

Transitional - round, simple but appear stratified

Connective tissue

Consists of fibroblasts embedded in non-cellular matrix

matrix composed of ground substance

Connective tissue cont.

made up of living cells and non living substance.

1. Ground substance made up of organic and inorganic

principal cell is fibroblast

1. found in most connective tissues

2. motile, go through mitosis, synthesize connective tissue where needed

matrix gives tissue its density

1. blood considered one because of matrix

Types of connective tissue

Loose/areolar

Dense, fibrous, connective tissue

cartilage

bone

adipose

blood

Muscle tissue

Skeletal - voluntary, striated

cardiac- involuntary, striated

smooth - involuntary, no striations

Nervous tissue

• Consists of neurons and neuroglia

• generate and transmit electrical impulse

Homeostasis/thermoregulation

Aims to keep internal conditions around set point(optimal point)

Set point can change in time

Acclimatization

changes in one organ system to maintain a set point in another organ system

Positive feedback loop

maintains or strengthens in response to stimulus

Negative feedback loop

stops and reverses whatever stimulus it is required to respond to

Thermoregulation

Controlled by hypothalamus

1. radiation

2. convection

3. conduction

4. evaporation

Obligate carnivores

must eat meat to survive

facultative carnivores

doesn’t have to eat meat but works best on it

Incomplete vs complete digestive tracts

Incomplete=single opening=gastrovascular

• lacks specialized parts

• in and out mouth

Complete=two openings=alimentary canal

• food goes in mouth, out anus

Monogastric

one stomach

Avian digestion

stomachs have two chambers

1. proventriculus, gastric juioces digest food before the stomach

Diet adaptations

Herbivores

• incisors for cliping

• premolars and molars for grinding

Carnivores

• pointed incisors and enlarged canines

• shear off food

Human Digestion

Alimentary and extracellular

• digestive enzymes secreted by wall of digestive tract and glands

Mouth HDT

Salivary amylase starts starch digestion

• tongue and chewing forms bolus

Pharynx

• where digestive and respiratory passages come together

• epiglottis stops food coming in air way

Esophagus HDT

food to stomach through peristalsis

Stomach HDT

Acidic and digests most of protein

has deep folds until filled up to one liter(max)

Small intestine HDT

Digestion and absorbtion continue here

Accesory glands HDT

add secretions that catabolize food into nutrients

1. Salivary glands

2. liver, bile, breakdown fatty stuff

3. pancreas, neutralize acidic chime, and digest protein and carbohydrates

4. gallblader stores and concentrates bile

Chyme

Gastric juices and food make chyme

Absorption

ridges, furrows, and villi increase absorptive area in small intestines

Carbs digestion

• Starch & glycogen broken down by amylase and maltase

• sucrase for sucrose

• lactase for lactose

Protein digestion

mostly stomach through enzyme pepsin, into peptides which are 4-9 long amino acids

then absorbed in blood stream through small intestines

lipid digestion

begins in stomach

mostly in small intestine through lipase from pancreas, bile helps

Large intestine HDT

cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal

larger in diameter but shorter than small intestine

absorbs water, salts, and vitamins

too much water removed is constipation

too little is diarrhea

1/3 feces bacteria

Cephalic phase

neurons from food stimulus triggers salavation and secretion of gastric juices

Gastric phases

once food arrives in stomach, gastric acids and enzymes digest food, stimulated by

1. distension ins stomach

2. decrease in ph of stomach

3. presence of undigested material

Intestinal phase

chyme enters smalll intestine makes digestive secretions come out

Carbohydrates

Primary fuel

present in sugar, starch, fiber

Monosaccharides:

• glucose

• fructose

Disaccharides

• lactose

• sucrose

Glucose is preferred energy source in cells

Plants store glucose as starch

animals store as glycogen

Fiber

Undigestible carbohydrates

not a nutrient for humans

combines with bile acids and cholesterol in small intestine and doesn’t let them be absorbed

Proteins

Protein formation requires 20 different types of amino acids

adults require 8 amino acids from their diet, while children require 9

meat milk eggs, have all 20

vegetables are usually lacking in one

Essential amino acids

Methionine

Valine

Threonine

Phenylalanine

Leucine

Isoleucine

Tryptophan

Lysin

Arginine for children

Lipids

Fats, oils, cholesterol

need for vitamins ADEK

fat storage needed to protect organs and insulation

saturated fats (solid at room temp)

butter meat got them

palm and coconut oil got them too

Vitamins

Compounds we cant make, but we need them

Vitamin A

fat

promotes eye health, healthy skin, teeth, and bones

Vitamin D

fat

calcium absorption, strong bones

Vitamin E

Fat

Antioxidant, boost immune function

Vitamin K

Fat

blood clotting

Vitamin B

Water

helps body with energy, growth and development

Vitamin C

Water

Immune function,fights aging skim, antioxidant

Minerals

Calcium, Phosphorus, Sodium, Chlorine, Potassium, Magnesium, iodine, iron

Asexual reproduction(animals

Hydras bud

flatworms split in half

sponges, annelids, and echinoderms regenerate from fragments

Parthogensis is a type where unfertilized egg creates an organism

Internal fertilization

PRotects eg from dehydration

limites predation on young

enhances the fertilization of eggs by specific male

fewer offspring, higher survival rate

External fertilization

Broadcast spawing - greater mix of genes in a group and greater chance of survival in hostile environment

for sessile organims, only way to spread

makes predation easier

offspring must mature rapidly

survival rate low

Sexual reproduction

most animals dioecious- useful to high mobility anim

some monoecious - useful to little mobility anims

Invertebrates

Insect eggs made in ovaries

• yolk is stored food

• some go through metamorphosis

Some have larval stage where they have dif diet than adults

Vertebrates

Reptiles and birds oviparous

mammals viviparous

placenta eliminates need for shelled

Ovoviviparous

retain eggs and release young when they can fend for themselves, no direct nourishment from parent

Male reproduvtive system

Seminiferous tubules make sperm in testes

Female reproductive system

Ovarian cycle

1. Follicular phase

   1. FSH promotes follicle development

   2. follicle secretes estrogens

2. Ovulation

   1. release oocyte from vesicular follicle

   2. follicle develops into corpus luteum]

   3. degenerates if no pregnancy

3. Luteal phase

   1. LH promotes development of corpus luteum

   2. corpus luteum secretes progesterone

Hormones in guys

Hormones in girls

Uterin cycle

• Sex hormones produced in ovarian cycle affect endometrium

1. Days 1–5: Menstruation

• Endometrium disintegrates

• Menses pass out vagina during menstruation (periods)

1. Days 6–13: Proliferative phase

• Endometrium thickens

• Ovulation usually occurs on 14th day

1. Days 15–28: Secretory phase

• Endometrium doubles in thickness

Infertility

inability to have kid after year of unprotected, regular sex

even split between men and women

Common causes

• female - endometriosis

• male - low sperm count

Assisted reproductive tech

• IVF

• Articial insemination

• Gamete Intrafallopian transfer

• intracytoplasmic sperm injection

Hormones

Regulagtory chemical secreted into extracellular fluid thats carried by the blood

need these for homeostasis

attachment of hormone to receptor induces cellular response

Classifying hormones

lipid-derived hormones

amino acid derived

peptide

Lipid derived hormones

diffuse through plasma membranes

Amino acid derived hormones

many neurotransmitters

Peptide Hormones

much larger than other hormones

Neuro vs endocrine

millisecond response vs longer response, secs to days

specific effects vs widespread effects

adapts quickly vs slowly adapting

Hormone regulation

work through negative feedback (usually)

MoHr(mechanisms of hormonal release) respond to

1. Humoral stimuli : changes in extracellular fluid levels or ion levels

2. Hormonal stimuli: hormones from other glands

3. Neural stimuli: neurons telling it to

How Hormones work

need specific receptor

Number can change due to

• up-regulation

• down- regulation

Receptors found within cell or on membranes

Intracellular Hormone Receptors Lipid-derived hormones

bind to transport proteins

release from protein when at cell and bind within cell by passing through membrane

• lipophillic - cross membrane and bind to intra-cellular receptor

• hormone/receptor complex regulates transcription by changing synthesis of mRNA

Intracellular Hormone Receptors

1. bind to transport proteins

2. pass through plasma membrane

3. bind within cell with target

4. Hormone receptor complex regulates transcription

Excretory system

maintains water balance

ADH(Antidiuretic hormone)

• regulates amounts of water excreted by kidney

• released when water levels low in blood

• made in Hypothalmus

Aldosterone

made by adrenal cortex

main regulator of water and electrolytes

promotes reabsorption of water

released due to renin angiotensin system, while ADH is released with osmo-receptors

Reproductive system

FSH(follicle stimulating hormone

• males: make sperm

• females: make eggs

LH (luteinizing hormone)

• males: make testosterone

• females: lots of it causes ovulation

Oxytocin

• stimulates contraction in birth

Metabolism

Insulin

• produced by beta cells pancreas

• lowers blood sugar by making cells take up more

Glucagon

• Antagonist to insulin

• produced by alpha cells pancreas

• raises blood sugar by breaking down glycogen in liver

Regulation of Metabolism, Thyroid

BML is determine by T4 (Thyroxine) and T3 (Triiodothyronine)

released from thyroid after TSH(Thyroid Stimulating Hormone)

• hyperthyroidism = high Metabolism

  • weight loss, irritability, increased bpm

• Hypothyroidism = low metabolism

  • Weight gain, sensitivity to cold, lethargy

Hormonal control of blood calcium

PTH(parathyroid hormone)

• released when low blood calcium

antagonist is calcitonin(made by thyroid)

growth control with hormones

Regulated by GH(growth hormone)

• stimulates growth, cell reproduction, and cell regen

• increase of protein synthesis

• glucose sparing

• regulated by growth hormone stimulating other hormones

Hormonal control of stress

Short term stress

• epinephrine(adrenal gland)

Long term

• cortisol(Adrenal gland)

• Anti-inflammatory

Hypothalmus

intergrates endocrine and nervous system

makes regulatory hormones that control the cells in the anterior pituitary

Pituitary gland

hypophysis

hang from hypothalamus

1. anterior pituitary(adenohypophysis)

   1. appears glandular

   2. not brain part

   3. regulated by neurohormones from hypothalamus which can stop or start tropic hormones

2. Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)

   1. appears fibrous

   2. part of brain

   3. ADH and oxytocin

Anterior Pituitary

7 essential hormones

Peptide Hormones

1. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) - adrenal gland to make cortisol

2. Melanin-stimulating hormone(MSH)-dispersion of color

Protein hormones

3. GH

4. Prolactin (PL) stimulates mammary glands

Glycoprotein Hormones

5. TSH

6. LH

7. FSH

Adrenal glands

right above kidneys

Adrenal cortex

• Glucocorticoids(Cortisol, Stress)

• Mineralocorticoid (Aldosterone, ion uptake)

• Sex hormones

Adrenal Medulla

• Epinephrine(fight

• Norepinephrine(flight

Plasma membrane hormone receptors

Amino acid derived hormones and peptides cannot pass through

bind to receptors on outer surface of membrane and initiates 2nd messenger system

Invert Nervous system

Hydras

• nerve net

Planarians

• ladder-like nervous system

• cephalization

Annelids, Arthropods, and Mollusks

• true nervous systems

HNS

CNS- brain spinal cord

PNS- somatic, autonomic

three specific functions

1. receiving sensory input

2. performing intergration

3. generating motor input

Neurons

• i know this shit

• they got regular organelles as well as the cool shit

Types of neurons (Function)

1. motor neurons

   1. accept nerve impulses from CNS

   2. transmit to muscles, or glands

2. Sensory Neurons

   1. Accept from sensory receptors

   2. transmit to CNS

3. Interneurons(Relay)

   1. Convey neve pulses in CNS

Types of Neurons (Shape)

unipolar

bipolar

pseudounipolar

multipolar(most common)

Glial Cells

Support, protect, and nourish neurons

10 to 1 in brain with neurons

most brain tumors glia

what glial cells where

CNS:

• oligodendrocytes: form myelin sheath

• Astrocytes: nutrients and structural support

• Ependymal cells: produce cerebrospinal fluid

• microglia: scavenges pathogens and dead cells

PNS:

Schwann cells: form myelin sheath

Satellite cells: nutrients and structural support

Neuron Comminication

Signals sent with charged cellular membrane( voltage difference between ecto and endo

Charged membranes

Voltage-gated ion channels regulate concentraions of different ions

difference in total charge between inside and outside of cell is called membrane potential

Resting membrane potential

usually around -70mV

negative charge in cell is because cell membrane dont let sodium move as easy as potassium