study guide micro exam 2

Transposons

DNA sequences that move within a genome, causing mutations, altering gene expression, or contributing to diseases.

Retrotransposons

Class I transposons that move via a copy-paste mechanism using RNA.

DNA Transposons

Class II transposons that move via a cut-paste mechanism using the enzyme transposase.

Frameshift Mutation

A mutation that shifts the reading frame of the genetic code, often leading to nonfunctional proteins.

Deletion Mutation

A mutation that removes one or more nucleotides from DNA, potentially causing frameshift mutations.

Insertion Mutation

A mutation that adds extra nucleotides to DNA, which can lead to frameshift mutations.

Intercalating Agents

Substances that insert between DNA base pairs, causing mutations and DNA damage.

Mutagens

Agents that increase the frequency of mutations in DNA, can be physical, chemical, or biological.

Base Analogs

Compounds that mimic DNA bases, causing mispaired substitutions and increasing mutation rates.

CRISPR

A genetic editing tool derived from bacteria that allows for targeted DNA modifications.

Selectable Markers

Genes introduced into a cloning vector that confer traits enabling identification of successful clones.

Transformation

The process where bacteria take up free DNA from their environment, leading to new traits.

Conjugation

The direct transfer of DNA between bacteria via physical contact, often using plasmids.

Transduction

The transfer of DNA from one bacterium to another via bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria).

Crown Gall Tumor

A plant tumor caused by Agrobacterium tumefaciens, which transfers DNA into plant cells.

DNA Polymerase

An enzyme that synthesizes new DNA strands during replication and assists in DNA repair.

Restriction Enzyme

An enzyme that cuts DNA at specific sequences, crucial for cloning and genetic modification.

Gel Electrophoresis

A technique used to separate DNA, RNA, or proteins based on their size and charge.

Cloning Vector

A DNA molecule used to carry foreign DNA into a host cell for replication or expression.

DNA Microarray

A tool for measuring the expression of thousands of genes simultaneously.

cDNA

Complementary DNA synthesized from mRNA, representing only the coding regions of genes.

PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)

A technique to amplify specific DNA sequences through a series of temperature cycles.

Ames Test

A method for detecting mutagenic substances using bacteria with a mutation in the histidine synthesis gene.

Genetic Recombination

The process of exchanging genetic material between different DNA molecules.

Antisepsis

The prevention of infection by killing or inhibiting microorganisms on living tissues.

Sterilization

The process of completely removing or killing all microorganisms.

Disinfection

The removal or killing of most harmful microorganisms on non-living surfaces.

Sanitation

Reducing microbial populations to safe levels on surfaces or objects.

Pasteurization

A process of heating liquids to kill pathogenic microorganisms without affecting product quality.

Healthcare-Associated Infections (HAIs)

Infections acquired during medical treatment or hospital stays.

Boiling Water

An effective disinfection method that kills many pathogens through high temperatures.

Autoclave

A device that sterilizes equipment using high-pressure steam.

Microwave Sterilization

Uses heat generated in water molecules to kill microorganisms.

Chemical Germicides

Chemicals used to kill or inhibit the growth of microorganisms.

Action of Alcohols

Denature proteins and disrupt cell membranes, effectively killing most bacteria and viruses.

Action of Chlorine

A powerful disinfectant that kills microorganisms by oxidizing their cell components.

Short Tandem Repeats (STRs)

Regions in DNA with repeated short sequences, often used in forensic analysis.

Plasmid

A small, circular DNA molecule that can replicate independently and be transferred between bacteria.

Genome Library

A collection of cloned DNA fragments from an organism, used for research and gene discovery.

Gel Electrophoresis Process

Separates DNA fragments by size and charge, with smaller fragments moving faster.

Blue/White Screening

A method for selecting successful ligation in cloning based on color differences of colonies.

Action of Nitrates and Nitrites

Preservatives that inhibit bacterial growth and disrupt metabolism.

Function of a Probe in FISH

Used in fluorescent in situ hybridization to identify specific genes or chromosomal regions.

Gene Therapy

A technique that modifies or replaces faulty genes to treat or prevent disease.

RNA Interference (RNAi)

A biological process in which RNA molecules inhibit gene expression by destroying specific mRNA.

Transgenic Organisms

Organisms that have had genes from other species inserted into their genomes.

Nucleotide

The basic building block of DNA and RNA, comprising a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.

Gene Expression

The process by which information from a gene is used to synthesize functional gene products like proteins.

Promoter

A DNA sequence that initiates the transcription of a particular gene.

Intron

Non-coding regions of a gene that are removed during RNA splicing.

Exon

Coding regions of a gene that remain in the mature mRNA after splicing.

Histone Modifications

Chemical changes to histone proteins that regulate gene expression by altering chromatin structure.

mRNA

Messenger RNA, a type of RNA that conveys genetic information from DNA to ribosomes.

tRNA

Transfer RNA, a type of RNA that helps decode mRNA sequences into proteins.

rRNA

Ribosomal RNA, a component of ribosomes that helps in protein synthesis.

Alternative Splicing

A process where different combinations of exons are joined to produce multiple protein variants from one gene.

DNA Methylation

The addition of methyl groups to DNA, often affecting gene expression without altering the DNA sequence.

Chromatin

A complex of DNA and proteins that compacts DNA into a smaller volume to fit in the cell nucleus.

Polygenic Traits

Traits controlled by multiple genes, often exhibiting a continuous range of phenotypes.

Phenotype

The observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism, determined by both genetic makeup and environment.

Genotype

The genetic constitution of an organism, determining a specific characteristic.

Hereditary Mutations

Genetic alterations that are passed down from parents to offspring.

Somatic Mutations

Mutations that occur in somatic cells and are not inherited.

Oncogenes

Mutated forms of genes that promote cell division and can lead to cancer.

Tumor Suppressor Genes

Genes that normally inhibit cell division and prevent tumor formation.

Pathogenicity Islands

Genomic regions in bacteria that contribute to their ability to cause disease.

Bioinformatics

The application of computer technology to manage biological information, especially in genomics.

Genomic Sequencing

The process of determining the complete DNA sequence of an organism's genome.

Synthetic Biology

An interdisciplinary field involving the design and construction of new biological parts or systems.

Biobanking

The collection and storage of biological samples for future research.

Genome Editing

A group of technologies that allow scientists to alter an organism's DNA.

CRISPR-Cas9

A revolutionary gene-editing technology that allows precise modifications to DNA.

Microbiome

The collection of microorganisms living in a specific environment, such as the human gut.

Gene Knockout

A genetic technique in which one or more of an organism's genes are made inoperative.

Transcription Factors

Proteins that bind to specific DNA sequences to control the transcription of genetic information.

RNA Polymerase

An enzyme that synthesizes RNA from a DNA template.

Chimeric Antigen Receptor (CAR) T-cell Therapy

A treatment that modifies T-cells to attack cancer cells with specific antigens.

Antisense RNA

RNA that binds to complementary mRNA molecules, inhibiting their translation.

Cloning

The process of creating a genetically identical copy of an organism or cell.

Bisulfite Sequencing

A method for detecting DNA methylation patterns.

Transcriptional Activation

The process of increasing gene expression levels by promoting the binding of RNA polymerase.

Transcriptional Repression

The process of decreasing gene expression by inhibiting the binding of RNA polymerase.

DNA Repair

The collection of processes by which a cell identifies and corrects damage to its DNA.

Homologous Recombination

A type of genetic recombination in which nucleotide sequences are exchanged between similar or identical molecules of DNA.

Non-Homologous End Joining (NHEJ)

A pathway that repairs double-strand breaks in DNA by directly ligating the ends.

Ex Vivo Therapy

A procedure where cells are modified outside of the body and then reintroduced into the patient.

In Vivo Therapy

A treatment where modifications or therapies are administered directly within a living organism.

Viral Vectors

Modified viruses used to deliver genetic material into cells.

Germline Editing

Genetic modifications made to the germ cells that can be inherited.

Somatic Cell Therapy

Therapeutic interventions that involve the treatment of somatic cells to cure diseases.