HLTHPSYCH122

Taha Tinana

Physical health

Taha Wairua

Spiritual health

Taha Hinengaro

Mental/emotional health

Taha Whānau

Family/social health

Biomedical model

Disease model, identification and diagnosis of acute and chronic medical conditions

Problem with the biomedical model

Doesn’t address clinical conditions that may have multiple behavioural, social and environmental causes

Psychosomatic medicine

Scientific investigation of the relationship between physiological and psychological factors involved in illness. Emphasis on unity of mind and body.

Biopsychosocial lifespan model

Psychological, biological, social factors that influence health and wellness across the lifespan.

Biopsychosocial model - psychological component (cognition)

Thoughts, beliefs and attitudes, health risk appraisal (how concerned you are about health risk), self-efficacy (your belief in whether you can achieve something)

Biopsychosocial model - psychological component (Behaviour)

Adoption and maintenance of health behaviours, eg. operant conditioning, social learning theory

Biopsychosocial model - psychological component (emotion)

How you feel in a given moment - emotional regulation/appraisal/disclosure

WHO definition of health

A state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing, not just the absence of disease.

Scientific method

Observation/question > existing theory > hypothesis > design a study to test hypothesis > collect data > analysis (apply statistical techniques, due to chance or different factors) > publication > look at what questions remain, theory development

Key features of good research

Theoretical framework, standardised procedures, generalisability, objective measurement

Theoretical framework

Organising ideas, framing hypothesis

Standardised procedures

All participants are subjected to the same procedures

Generalisability

Sample representative of population, relevant outside of the study

Objective measurement

Reliable/valid measures

Experimental research - key features

• Manipulation of the independent variable

• Random assignment of participants to conditions

Strengths of experimental designs

• Can make causal claims

• High internal validity (can infer cause and effect, random assignment helps eliminate confounds)

Limitations of experimental designs

• Random assignment sometimes impossible/unethical

• Can be low external validity (control can reduce the extent we can generalise to real world setting)

Internal validity

Shows whether a study accurately measures a causal relationship.

External validity

Focuses on whether the findings can be applied to a broader populaiton.

Correational research designs - key feature

Examines the degree to which two (or more) variables are related.

Understanding correlational data

• A causes B

• B causes A

• Third variable C causes both A and B

Strengths of correlational design

• Helps us predict behaviour/outcomes

• Could suggest a potential cause and effect relationship to be subsequently investigated in experimental research

• Allows researchers to examine relationships among variables that can’t be investigated by experimental research

• Reveals naturally occurring relationships in the ‘real world’

• High external validity

Limitations of correlational design

• Cannot infer cause and effect (correlation does not imply causation)

• Can’t predict why an association exists

• Low internal validity

• Lack of control over variables - confounding variables

Descriptive research methods

Observing and describing subject’s behaviours, beliefs, health and abilities as they naturally occur, ie. no manipulation of variables.

Common descriptive research methods

• Self-report: surveys and interviews

• Naturalistic observations

• Laboratory observations

• Clinical/case studies

• Biological/neurobiological techniques

Naturalistic observation

Observe behaviour in its natural setting, attempt to avoid influencing or controlling it

Strengths of naturalistic observation

• High external validity

• can help generate new ideas

Limitations of naturalistic observation

• Must wait for the behaviour to occur naturally

• Usually small scale, may not be representative

• Low internal validity (can’t control confounds)

• Cause and effect difficult to establish

Strengths of laboratory/clinic observation

• Better control of potential confounds in environment

• Specialised equipment for precise measurement

• Can find associations

Limitations of laboratory/clinic observations

• Surroundings (lab/clinic/research office) may affect results

• Difficult to infer cause and effect.

Case studies

Observe one or a very few subjects in great depth, usually over a long period of time

Strengths of case studies

• Only method appropriate for very unusual cases

• Provide insight for future research

Limitations of case studies

• Problems with generalising the results - anecdotal

• Difficult to infer cause and effect

Surveys and interviews

Self/parent/teacher/alternative report data from groups of people.

Strengths of surveys and interviews

• Can collect wide range of info that researchers cannot observe

• Can sample large populations

• Can get rich data by using multiple informants

Limitations of surveys and interviews

• Subjects may forget/lie/lack insight

• Essential that sample is representative of population

Human development study designs

Longitudinal, cross sectional

Longitudinal design

Data collected on the same group over two or more time points

Strengths of longitudinal designs

• can examine change over time

• can examine associations between early experiences and later behaviour/development/health

Limitations of longitudinal designs

Time, expense, attrition (drop in participant numbers)

Cross sectional study

Compare people of different ages at one time point

Strengths of cross sectional studies

Quick and less expensive to carry out

Limitations of cross sectional studies

• cannot detect changes within an individual

• correlations hard to interpret

How can bias be introduced?

• Subject expectancies

• Experimenter expectancies

Subject expectancies

Participants can change their behaviour when they take part in an experiment

Experimenter expectancies

Every observer brings their own experiences, own lens, may unconsciously influence

Sampling bias considerations

Is the sample representative? Are some people more likely to be selected/volunteer? Can we generalise the findings?

Dealing with bias

• Placebo treatments can be used to handle subject expectancies

• Double blind studies control both subject and experimenter expectancies

How is experimenter bias minimised?

• Standardised procedures

• objective measurement (operationalisation - precise definition of what is measured and how)

How is sampling bias minimised?

• representative sample (random selection)

• random assignment

• matched control group can be used in some cases

Common issues in research

• confounding variables

• correlation doesn’t imply causation

• biases and limitations in self-report data

Key ethical principles

• protection from physical/psychological harm - risk/gain assessment

• informed consent

• confidentiality

• deception and debriefing

• children or vulnerable people as subjects

Scientific method

1. Ask a question

2. form a hypothesis

3. test the hypothesis

4. analyse the data

5. report the results

6. conduct more research

Developmental psychology

The study of how people change physically, cognitively, emotionally, and socially throughout life

Sequential studies

Combine both cross sectional and longitudinal designs for a more comprehensive view

Reliability

consistent across different settings

Validity

tests what the study aims to test

Correlation coefficient (r)

Describes the strength of the relationship between two variables

r = 1

Strong positive correlation

r = 0

No correlation

r = -1

Strong negative correlation

Independent variable

Manipulated by researcher

Dependent variable

Is measured to assess whether the manipulation of the independent variable had an effect

Research ethics requirements

• informed consent

• harm minimisation

• confidentiality

• deception and debriefing

Informed consent

Inform potential participants of all aspects of research:

• what participation involves, benefits/risks of participation, where to get support, right to withdrawal, decision is voluntary

Maintain participant confidentiality

• don’t disclose participants’ contact details or divulge details of data that could make participants identifiable

• keep data secure

Take steps to minimise harm to participants

• rights, safety and wellbeing of participants are the most important considerations and should prevail over interests of science and society

• shouldn’t be significant advantages or disadvantages of taking part or deciding not to take part.

The use of deception and debriefing

• withhold true purpose of the study when going through informed consent

• debrief afterwards to explain true purpose and why deception was necessary

• provide support including avenues for more info.

Ethical considerations: children as participants

• they are vulnerable

• are they able to give informed consent?

• parental consent or consent from guardian and child (if possible)

What happened after Phineas Gage’s frontal lobes were destroyed in a blasting accident?

His ability to plan, limit impulses, and reason were destroyed

Nervous system

Provides the biological basis, or substrate, for psychological experience

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Carries information to and from the central nervous system

Somatic nervous system

Conveys sensory information to the central nervous system and sends motor messages to muscles

Automatic nervous system

Serves basic life functions, such as the beating of the heart and response to stress

Sympathetic nervous system

Readies the body in response to threat; activates the organism

Parasympathetic nervous system

Calms the body down; maintains energy

Central nervous system

directs psychological and basic life processes; responds to stimuli

Spinal cord

receives sensory input; sends information to the brain; responds with motor output

Brain

Directs psychological activity; processes information; maintains life support

Areas of the brain

Forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain

Frontal lobe and pre-frontal cortex

• the central executive

• higher cognitive functions, abstract thought, planning, decision making

The limbic system

Hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus, thalamus

Hippocampus

Memory, new learning

Amygdala

Emotion processing

Hypothalamus

Regulates motivated behaviour. Key in HPA axis and triggers stress response

Thalamus

Major relay station for sensory information

Two chemical messengers

• Neurotransmitters → neurons

• Hormones → organs

Stress response system

hypothalamus —CRH→ pituitary gland —ACTH→ cortisol (to immune system) —the hypothalamus responds to level of cortisol→ hypothalamus

The endocrine system

A series of glands that rely on hormonal communication to activate cells throughout the body

Pituitary gland

Pituitary hormones play a role in regulating behaviour, emotion, cognition

Brain development - neurons

At birth, the brain is nearer adult size than any other physical structure, 100-200 billion neurons

• 90% adult weight by 2-6 years

Brain - organisation - sequence of brain development

• Primitive areas

• cortical areas

• prefrontal cortex

Primitive areas

body functions, sleep cycles, limbic system: emotional regulation develop over the first 3 years

Cortical areas: cerebral hemispheres

Thinking and cognitive processes

Prefrontal cortex

executive functions, middle childhood into adulthood

Sensitive periods of development

• stimulation vital during growth spurts (occur from infancy to early adulthood)

• experience “wires” a child’s brain growth by the development of organised neuronal connections

• under stimulation or neglect impairs development

• possible to overwhelm children especially in “toxic” environments