Comprehensive Geography: Map Types, Spatial Concepts, and Tools

Cartography

The science of map-making.

Projection

How a 3D Earth is represented on a flat map (always causes distortion).

Reference map

Map that shows locations like cities, roads, and boundaries.

Thematic map

Map that shows data such as population, climate, or religion.

Topographic map

Map that shows elevation with contour lines.

Cartographic scale

Ratio of distance on map to distance in real life.

GIS

Computer system that stores, analyzes, and displays geographic data in layers.

GPS

Satellite system that determines absolute location on Earth.

Remote sensing

Collection of data about Earth via satellites or aerial photography.

Mental map

A person's internal, subjective perception of space.

Absolute location

Exact position on Earth using coordinates (lat/long).

Relative location

Position compared to surrounding features or places.

Latitude

Parallel lines running east-west (Equator = 0°).

Longitude

Meridians running north-south (Prime Meridian = 0°).

International Date Line

~180° longitude, where calendar days change.

Site

Physical characteristics of a place (soil, climate, elevation).

Situation

Location of a place relative to other places.

Proximity

Closeness of one place to another.

Formal region (Uniform)

Area with one shared characteristic (language, climate, etc.).

Functional region (Nodal)

Area organized around a central node (subway, newspaper area).

Perceptual region (Vernacular)

Region defined by cultural perceptions ("the South").

Regionalization

Process of dividing areas into regions.

Subregion

Smaller area within a region.

Cultural landscape

The visible imprint of human activity on the environment.

Built environment

Human-made structures like cities, roads, buildings.

Cultural ecology

Study of human-environment interactions.

Environmental determinism

Belief that environment shapes human activity.

Possibilism

Belief that humans adapt and innovate despite environment.

Sustainability

Using resources in a way that ensures future availability.

Distribution

Arrangement of features in space.

Density

Frequency of a feature in space.

Concentration

Whether features are clustered or dispersed.

Pattern

Arrangement of features (linear, random, grid, etc.).

Diffusion

Spread of ideas, traits, or practices across space.

Distance-decay

Interaction decreases as distance increases.

Time-space compression

Technology reduces barriers of distance and time.

Connectivity

Direct linkages between places (transport, internet).

Accessibility

Ease of reaching a place.

Friction of distance

Distance makes interaction harder or less likely.

Spatial interaction

Flow of people, goods, or information between places.

Spatial association

Two phenomena occurring together in space.

Scale

Relationship between map size and real-world size.

Geographic scale

Level of analysis (global, regional, local).

Scale of data

Level at which data is presented (state vs county).

Qualitative data

Descriptive, non-numeric data (interviews, maps).

Quantitative data

Numeric data (census, surveys).

Fieldwork

Collecting geographic data on location in person.

Field observation

Recording information from direct observation in the field.

Landscape analysis

Studying natural and human-made features of a place.

Spatial approach

Examining patterns and processes by location.

Place

Unique location with specific characteristics.

Sense of place

Emotional or cultural meaning tied to a location.

Toponym

Name given to a place.

Physical geography

Study of natural features (climate, landforms, ecosystems).

Human geography

Study of people, cultures, economies, and politics.

Elevation

Height above sea level.

Location

Where something is (absolute or relative).