History Final 2025

Scientific Revolution

• intellectual + scientific discoveries (1500-1700)

• changed the way people looked at the world + laid foundation for modern science

Geocentric vx. Heliocentric Ideas

Geocentric- earth is at center of universe, planets revolve around us

Heliocentric- planets revolve around sun (sun is center)

• invokes skepticism and challenges authority

The Enlightenment

• where from

• impact

• concept

• new way of thinking introduces by philosophes

• seeks understanding of natural world + human roles

• based on Newtons Theory that the universe is a machine and learning the rules can help understand/better society

• came from Protestant Reformation + Italian Renaissance

• individual thinking + government freedom

Philosophers/Philosophes

• writers, economists, speakers that wanted to change the world for the better

• better society

Thomas Hobbes

• beliefs and creations

• created Social Contract-- regulations innate human self interest

• believes that strong government is needed to maintain order (people need to be controlled)

• supports absolutism (strong central gov = peace and order)

John Lock

• beliefs and creations

• believes that everyone born with nation rights - life liberty, and property

• people are blank slates and easily influences

• they have a right to rebel

• people have total freedom within ethic laws

Social Contract

• who made it, concepts

• made by Rousseau

• everyone gives us some rights to government for commonwealth- everyone protected + organized community

• concept: government is there to enforce the sovereign will of society

Popular Sovereignty

• the people have the power of who they elect- they have the right to govern themselves

• vote for leader (democracy)

Separation of Powers

• concept, who created it

• 3 branches of government - Legislative (makes laws), Executive (enforces law, and Judicial (interprets law)

Proportional Punishment

• punishment of crime fits the degree of committed crime (serverity)

Bourgeoisie

• place on the power pyramid, occupations, beliefs, impact

• original middle class- merchants and traders

• angry for exclusion of power despite their economic standing

• hated that nobility and clergy had all the power

• funded FR- wants democratic government

Natural Rights

• life, liberty, and property

• everyone is born with these 3 rights, cannot be taken away in the social contract

State of Nature

• every without government/authority, people are still responsible for others

• absence of gov does not mean absence of obligation

3 Estates

• when was it used, concept, impact to FR

• old hierarchy structure before the FR

• 1st - clergy, 2nd- nobility, 3rd- commoners

• lists everyones responsibilities

• all of the taxes and burdens placed on 3rd Estate, they lacked power but was biggest of the estates

• economic stress and lack of equality causes FR by 3rd Estate

Phases of French Revolution

1. Preliminary phase

   • absolute monarchy (led by King Louis XVI)

   • unfair feudal system + 3 Estates + taxes +economic crisis

2. Moderate Phase

   • Revolution (constitutional Monarchy)

   • national assembly (made of 3rd Estate)

   • tennis court oath - never give up on the cause

   • produced documents + laws: Abolish Feudalism and the Rights of Man and of Citizen

   • abolished slavery in France

3. Radical Phase

   • National Convention replaces National Assembly- led by Robespierre

   • executes Loui XVI

   • begins public education, abolishes slavery throughout France

   • The Reign of Terror

4. Reactionary Phase

   • National Legislative Assembly

   • destroyed w/ chaos + corruption by Napoleon

Relics of Feudalism

• concept, impact of FR

• feudal laws + structures remain after abolishment of feudal system (1789)

• commoners payed fees for communal facilities (mills, ovens)

• lords set high taxes + labor services

• led to the revolution

Tax System Pre-FR

• 1st +2nd Estate evaded heavy taxation (10%, 25-30%, 35%-45%)

• 3rd estate held all the burden- land, taille, poll, and capitation taxes

• leds to FR

King Loui XVI

• last king of France before fall of monarchy

• brought bankruptcy of France by funding US revolution

• people angry that he cause economic collapse

• during Moderate phase, disappears into the background- National Assembly makes the decisions and paints his as the “Restorer of French Liberty”

• tried to flee to Austria for help to suppress the FR but is caught

• France is enraged, they feel betrayed

• convicted of treason, then executed

Estates General

• job

• actions

• gave Louis advice on how to end the pre-FR bankruptcy

• representative assembly of all 3 estates, where the 3rd estate complained about taxes

• reopening of this led to FR

Storming of Bastille

• raid of a prison in Paris

• Bastille symbolized the power +nobility that everyone hated

Declaration of Rights of Men and of Citizen

• everyone with 3 natural rights - the government much protect this

• no outside governance can rule the people

• control relies on nation itself

• free will + speech, jobs by merit, proportional punishment

• property can only be taken away legally

• tax is needed but assigned based on income

• created to prevent corrupted gov

• when loss of rights occur, corruption occurs

Levee En Masse

• used to fight a external war against invasions

• deployed every people in France into helping the war- everyone had a purpose

• people cannot be replaced at their service

• everything is at disposal to the gov- horses, resources

La Marseillarse

• promotes great nationalism to promote enganement in the external wars of France

• national anthem

The Reign of Terror

• actions, purpose, impact

• led by the Committee of Safety (Robespierre) during the Radical Phase

• this was to fight the internal wars (counter revolutionaries) by scaring and executing them

• creates a lot of paranoia, no one brave enough to step out against gov.

• loss of proportional punishment and other FR ideals

• clergy/churches close down

• ended at execution of Robespierre

Robespierre

• actions

• values

• participation in organizations

• is a Bourgeoisie political, very influential in the FR

• part of the Jacobin political party- anti monarchy

• began Reign of Terror, led to controversy and his ultimate execution

• tries to wipe out every French monarch

• terror is necessary for a Republic of Virtue

Liberte, Eqalite, Fraternite

• freedom, equality, fraternity

• the chant of the FR, new liberal values

Committee of Public Safety

• purpose, impact, actions

• takes care of France’s internal and external enemies

• becomes a dictatorship in Reign of Terror BUT saves the revolution

• centralized power, Levee En Masse, Reign of Terror

• values: republic of virtue, believe in the revolution

Napoleon Bonaparte:

• how he gained support, values, impact

• appears in the Reactionary phase

• gains support since everyone believes he will bring order after years of chaos

• revolutionized + grows military- won great battles

• reorganizes public education

• climbs up ladder during FR and joins Jacobins group

• believes in centralized government and order

Napoleon Code

• value, replaces what, impact

• standard civil laws established by Napoleon of equality and FR values

• brings order to years of chaos and replaces old feudal laws

• spreads FR values across Europe

Empire building

• impact, failure

• the process of Napoleon building his empire- conquest across Europe

• spread French laws + reform +FR ideals

• collapses after failed Waterloo Battle (1815) - this is the fall of Napoleon

Napoleon’s Downfall

• caused by growing resistance from other European countries

• Napoleon losses battles in Waterloo, Leipzig, and Russia

• he is exiled, gained power, and then exiled again

• forced to leave his throne

Congress of Vienna:

• made of who, purpose, against what, impacts

• made of European officials, called upon to redraw Europe after Napoleon’s conquests

• establish balance of power, make sure that no of can take over Europe like Napoleon did

• congress made up of all conservatives- they were against FR

• reinstated a monarch to the throne in France with no input from

• CRUSHES nationalism

Otto Von Bismark

• chancellor under Prussia

  • kind of Prussia will become ruler of Germany

• used realpolitik and manipulated enemies to get what he wanted

• responsible for the reunification of Germany (1871)

German Unification

• the process of forming a unified German nation-state (1871)

• happened after Franco Prussian war when Prussia won

• gets control of northern german states after manipulating Austria into helping them

Realpolitik

• politics where practicality is over moral obligations

• win by any means necessary

• used in German Unification by Otto Von Bismark

• he made strategic alliances and manipulations

Negative + Positive Integration

• Negative Integration- finding a common scapegoat or outcast to spark common hatred

  • used to unify Germany- Bismark tried to outcast Catholics

• Positive integration- setting up standard regulations to promote equality, policies on environment protection, and social welfare

Liberal vs. Conservative

Liberalism:

• new way of thinking about the government - supports Enlightenment and FR ideals

• challenges the current political system

• representative gov- authority needs to me challenged

• power is divided

• religious tolerance

• challenge is constant and needed

• free economy

• church and state separated

Conservative:

• values order through monarchy and clergy

• believes that humans are innately bad and need to be controlled by gov

• education should be to teach tradition and respect leaders

Both:

• believes democracy is not the best

• certain people are better fit to lead (merit or nobility)

• gov should be ruled by wise and talented, usually elite

Neither:

• everyone has a say in the gov

  • Liberals also didn’t view everyone as everyone

Britain + Industrial Revolution

• the advantage of coal deposits in Britain gives them a jump start on the IR

• they also have growing population, new markets, and political stability

• IR: period of social and technological advancements

• led to urbanization, new industries, and mass production

• people move from rural to urban cities for work

• 1st IR- steam engine

• 2nd IR- gas, oil, electricity, internal combustion engine

Pros:

• increased efficiency = cheaper products

• more industries = more jobs

• rise of Bourgeoisie

• economic growth, British imperialism (but not really good)

Cons:

• exploitation of Proletariat workers

• bad conditions, bad sanitation, low mortality rates

• stunted growth in children, diseases, and violent discipline

• workers. have no control over schedule

• huge economic wedge between Elite and Proletariat

Textile Industry

• significance, inventions, change

• first industry to industrialize

• biggest inventions : spinning jenny, water frame, power loom

• instead of going around different places to make a shirt, its done in one place

Bourgeoisie vs. Proletariat

• 2 distinct social classes from the IR

Bourgeoisie:

• owners of capital, on top economically

Proletariat:

• workers for factories, ruled by Bourgeoisie, lacked ownership

Laissez Faire

• the government should not interfere with the free economy

• supports capitalism + free trade

Adam Smith

• believed that economy thrived without gov interference

• kidnapped by gypsies hahaha

• wealth is created by labor

• self interest leads to people using resources to get money → growth

Karl Marx

• beliefs, problems with capitalism, solution, end goal

1. believes tthat capitalism lets elites exploit the Porletariat

   • they pay them less than their produce is worth

   • profit is the difference between what the workers make and what they get paid

2. Capitalism’s lack of planning leads to over production

3. wealth tends to concentrate (with Bourgeoisie)

4. Solution steps:

   • Proletariat take power for themselves

   • over throw Bourgeoisie and set up their own dictatorship

   • get rid of private ownership (eliminate Bourgeoisie)

   • results in classes society and gov. withers away

5. create a system where workers make value in products + share wealth equally

Labor Theory of Value:

• the workers create the value of a product, not the boss

Capitalism

• concepts, impact

• an economic system where the private owned businesses control means of production to make profit

• competition creations growth, lower prices to help consumers

Demand and Supply:

• determines the cost of product

• no gov interference, unless there is a company dominating the market that is bad for capitalism

Impact:

• we would not have IR without capitalism

• created by IR, still operating today

• capital is used to invest in industrial ventures funded creation of new factories

• helped the development of railways and other transportation

Entrepreneur

• someone who takes the risk of investing money into a start up business, takes the biggest risk and reward

Cottage vs. Factory System

• Instead of running to make a shirt, raw materials go into factory and come out as finished goods

• increased efficiency

• changes power dynamics, bosses determine the start and end of worker shifts

Steam Engine

• when created/ which part of IR

• created by James Watt

• transformed industry and transportation

• originally for pumping water out of mines, not refined

• must more efficient and applicable to other industries

• led to invention of internal combustion engine

• 1st IR

New Imperialism

• colonization (mainly in Asia and Africa) by the IR for new markets and nationalism

• established direct/indirect ruling

• built infrastructure and transportation

• extracted natural resources to fuel the IR

Impact:

• underdevelopment (destruction of native industries)

• loss of culture and identity in native population

• destroys political progress

• inspires nationalism in Africa and India

Motivations and Justifications

Motivations:

• Nationalism (prestige in the most colonies)

• IR (needed resources to fuel IR and new markets to sell products)

• Geostrategic- territory gives them advantage

Justifications:

• Religious missionaries- “saving” them

• White Man’s Burden- Europeans had to help out those in need in India and Africa

• Social Darwinism- Europeans superior to Africans

Scramble for Africa

• meeting called by Otto Von Bismark to discuss how Europe would cut up the pieces of Africa

• called without any African representatives

• cut up Africa, ignoring preexisting cultural/political groups

  To claim a territory:

• they must publicly announce the colonization

• establish presence on the land, with trading posts

• extend control from inside to coast

Direct/Indirect Rule

• the European form of ruling over subject country

Direct:

• a representative of the imperialist country sent to change their legislative/political system (Belgium, France)

Indirect:

• a local leader maintain some power but under the supervision of Imperialist (Britain)

Social Darwinism

• Darwin’s theory of “survival fo the fittest”

• idea that some races are just better than others

• the destruction and extermination of the weaker races is just nature’s way to better the human species

Social Construct of Race

• the idea that race is constructed through society and not biology

• race actually doesn’t exist but shapes hierarchies and identities

• justifies inequalities and discriminations, justifies Imperialism

White Man’s Burden

• it was the moral obligation of Europeans to help out the weak/slow Africans and Indians

• Subject countries need to be “civilized”

King Leopold

• king of Belgium, he owned the Congo, NOT Belgium

• manipulated the truth of his imperialist motivations, says its for exploration

• claimed that they were independent states

• used slave labor to harvest crop s(cash crops)

• used orphans to fight the Congolese

• cut the arms off of those who did not get the rubber quota, but said it was to prevent cancer

• sells The Congo back to Belgium, makes more money

• burns all records of what he did to The Congo

African Nationalism

• when, against what, supports what

• political movement of the 19th-20th century to turn imperialist territories into self-governing states

• against imperialist powers and finds identity outside of them

• maintain cultural and political views

• supported creation of nation states

Franz Fanon

• study conclusions, beliefs

• a psychologist who studies the effects of Imperialism

• believed that people need violence to overcome imperialism, they need to reclaim their identity + culture

• they must find belonging in social background

The Red Rubber Terror

• what, why?

• during Belgian rule of the Congo, the villages had to reach a quota of rubber harvested

• if not met, their arms would be chopped off

• while the men harvested, the women and children were held hostage by soldiers

• fueled by the need of rubber in the IR

Worthy/Unworthy Victims

• victims of murder, atrocities, abuse that are/are not acknowledged

Unworthy- countries treat the victims of their own or allied as unworthy

Worthy- countries treat the victims of their own or allied as worthy

British East Asia Company

• who, power dynamic, importance,

• British private company that set up trading posts in India

• had a monopoly in the Spice/tea industry, funds sent to the Queen of Britain

• they controlled the spice trade

• had their own military (made of sepoys) with human rights violations

• established control over India- ruled some parts and have lost of political power

• critical for the British expansion, overcomes weak Moghul Empire

• led to decline of cultural goods in India, the Indian textile industry was competing with the British, so they wiped it out of India

• BEIC was owned by London Merchants, not Britain

Sepoy Mutiny

• actions, impact

• the sepoy refused to use the new weapons after rumors of cow/pig grease

• this was contradicting to Hindu and Muslim beliefs, cows were sacred

• they revolted against the BEIS-first time that Hindus and Muslims united

• Britain’s actual military steps in to defeat the revolt and from then on, establishes their imperialist rule

Indian National Congress

• made of who, wanted what

• major political party in India + made of all religions

• originally wanted home rule, but then wanted absolute independence

• Gandhi was a board member

Mohandas Gandhi

• part of the Indian National Congress

• starts Satyagraha, a form of peaceful protesting

• notices that India is also divided economically, widespread poverty

Satyagraha:

• resistance by getting a reaction from those in power

• it may hurt but you can never give them your obedience

Values + Actions:

• a “bad, familiar gov is better than a good, alien one”

• burned British clothes to signify that they did not rely of the British anymore, they can lead themselves

• led salt march- people walked miles to the sea to get their own salt (independence from Britain)

• fasted to prevent riots between Hindus and Muslims

Colonial Rivalry

• concept, effects

• the competition driven through nationalism for countries to imperialize territories

• they believed that this gave them international prestige

• causes global tensions (WWI)

Main Causes of WWI

Militarism

• arms race- every country had huge, waiting armies

• naval race between Germany and Britain

• war was “valid” means to foreign policy

Alliance System

• alliances created from the paranoia of militarism

• Triple Alliance (1882)- Germany, AH, and Italy formed first

• Triple Entente (1904)- Britain, France, and Russia

• the involvement of one country in war, tugs their allies into war with them

• prevents localization

Industrial/Imperialism

• colonies seen as prestige, Germany wanted as many colonies as Britain

• scramble for colonies led to tension in Europe

• Germany + Italy wanted a “Place in the Sun”

• gov though war would “discipline the workers”

Nationalism

• people believed their country was superior to others

• Outrage when AH annexed Bosnia, Slavics wanted to be part of Serbia instead

• lots of nations under AH wanted to break away

Balkans + the Powder Keg

• they were under rule of AH and wanted independence, AH did not like them

• lots of political tension, their anger was a “powder keg waiting to blow up”

“Place in the Sun”

• written by Kaiser, about German Nationalism

• Kaiser was as many colonies as Britain but was behind as a new country

• wants to grow navy (get to colonies quicker), economy, trade, and military

• promotes German unification, imperialism, and national identity

Alsace-Lorraine

• significance in WWI, motivator for what

• a place that France lost to Germany in the Franco-Prussian war

• this loss was embarrassment 🐸 and motivated France to engage in WWI (nationalistic motivation)

• the land itself was stripped of French identity and forced under German

• is the land of a big battleground and ends up being stalemate

WWI

• significance, expectation, how did it end

• the first ever war that involved every continent and used industrial weapons

• people expected it to be a quick victory but it was carried on 4 years, very bloody

• prolonged because of trench warfare, a defensive tactic

• a war of partition- who can take most losses

• ended by loss of German- they couldn’t handle the lsos of resources or emergence of another enemy- US

• Allies vs Central Powers

Archduke Franz Ferdinand

• archduke of AH, next in line for throne

• was visiting Bosnia, recently annexed by AH- Bosnians angry

• his assassination sparked political tension, leading to WWI

Gavrilo Princip

• killed/assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand

• Serbian nationalist

Schlieffen Plan

• goal, result

• Germany’s plan to avoid a 2 front war by relying on Russia’s slow mobilization

• attack France first by going through Belgium and invading the capital before Russia can get ready

• then attack Russia using Germany’s very efficient railroad transportation

• this was a failure, Russia mobilizes must faster than expected- so they are stuck in military stalemate

War of Attrition

• examples

• how many losses of resources and soldiers can you take before backing down

• win by outlasting injuries

• Western Front- both sides took heavy losses, PTSD

• took away resources, unrestricted submarine warfare

Total War

• every person has a role in participating in the war

Women in WWI

• since men were out in the military, women replaced their jobs and began building industrial weapons

• were hugely helpful in wining the war

• their job roles expanded and they challenged gender roles

Unrestricted Submarine Warfare

• concept, impacts

• Germany uses USW to sink British ships carrying resources

• accidentally sinks Lusitania with US passengers, America outraged and to prevent US involvement, Germany stops USW

• Britain then blockades German resources so desperately, Germany restarts USW but knows US will join war

• then trying to think ahead, asks Mexico in Zimmerman Telegram to occupy US in a war

• US intercepts the coded message and joined the war

• US joins war through propaganda, the resume of submarine warfare, and the Zimmerman Telegram

Triple Alliance

• made of Germany, Italy, and AH

1882

Triple Entente

• made of Britain, Russia, and France

1904

Trench warfare

• very defensive method and led to lots of stalemates- which is why the war carried on for so long

• generals would send soldiers over the top, across No Man’s Land, where they were killed by machine guns

• each side routinely did this in cycles, no one know how to fight a industrial war, only knew close combat

• this ended with the invention of tanks, now it was the familiar close combat

New Weaponry

• list new weapons and effects

• machine guns, killed those going over the top

• chemical gases- mustard gas

• tanks, jets, and submarines

• causes high casualties

Vladmir Lenin

• how did he gain power, goals, promises, actions, effects

• he led the Bolsheviks into war against Tzar during WWI when central gov was weak

• helped establish the Soviet Union- first communist gov and made of workers and soldiers

• pitted the Proletariat frustration against Bourgeoisie, promises them “land, bread”

• uses the wedge between Proletariat and Bourgeoisie to gain power

• Gave the P. power and created a one party system - totalitarianism

• ends and wins the Russian Civil war, ends private ownership of land, and nationalizes factories

Bolsheviks

• they seized power during WWI and created first communist government

• gave power to the proletariat

• the Bolshevik Revolution was the first successful Marxist coup

• implemented Red Terror, political oppression and executed enemies

Russian Revolution

• between the old regime with Tzar and those angry with famine and economic loss in WWI

• Tzar loses authority and Lenin comes back from exile

• he promises bread, piece, and land

• the revolution itself led to famines and mass death

Treaty of Versaille

• discusses the reparations due of WWI

• most of everything blamed on Germany and they have to pay - Germans angry

• Germany must cut down military, give away territory, and pay war reparations

• Creates League of Nations to prevent future wars

War Guilt Clause

• what it does to Germany

• part of the Treaty of Versaille treaty that says Germany must take full accountability of starting the war

• if Germany agrees that they are guilty of causing WWI, they are fully justifying their owed reparations

League of Nations

• established in the Treaty of Versaille after WWI

• to prevent future wars and promote peace in Europe

• ends up not working 👎, does not hold enough control since Japan just left one day

Weimar Republic

• begins with what gov, what problems, beliefs created

• new democratic gov after WWI (1919-1933)

• ultimately fails due to many Germans blaming hyperinflation and economy problems on the government form

• people though democracy was the root of economic issues

• it was a weak republic with frequent changes in leaders- creates a weak central gov, perfect for Nazi to rise

• falls when hitler comes to power

Ruhr Valley Crisis

• Germany could not make reparations to France so France invades the Ruhr Valley to take money directly from their iron/steel operations

• Ruhr Valley was a huge hub for German economy- natural resources

• workers revolt and resist working

• because of worker revolt, Germany economy collapses

• contributes to hyperinflation and political instability- rise of Hitler

Hyperinflation

• cause, effect

• Germany prints more money in order to pay for war reparations

• they also paid money for striking workers

• money loses value and prices rise

• people angry at democracy

The Great Depression

• causes, effects

• starts as in US with the Wall Street Crash and leads to global crisis

• caused by stock market crash and bank failures

• causes poverty, loss of jobs, and more hate for democracy

• but Hitler increases gov spending and reboots economy

Totalitarianism

• a political system of just one party, usually a dictatorship

• gov has complete control over everyone’s lives

• often suppresses liberties

• Nazi Germany and Soviet Union are examples

Fascism

• what’s it against (there’s a lot)

• what economy and values

• literally anti everything

• anti democracy, liberalism, communism, Enlightenment, socialist

• extreme nationalistic values, glorifies war

• usually racist

• capitalist- social base in middle class

• gains support after WWI

Nazism

• concepts, values, what does it support

• a form of fascism- ultranationalistic value

• believes in superiority of Aryan (blonde and blue eyes), they must purify Germany by exterminating Jews

• supports dictatorship, militarism, and aggressive expansion

• controlled all aspect of german life, even how they reproduce

Communism

• developed my Marx and Engels

• lead my Proletariat, the economy is divided evenly and private property is banned

• classless society

Stalin

• inherited throne from Lenin, Lenin did not want him to lead

• dictator of Russia- communist party

• has 5 year plan to industrialize Russia and grow army

• collectivized farms, concentrated small farmers into big farms to increase efficiency

  • led to huge famine and killed many

• scared people into subordination

• totalitarian dictator

Hitler

• who, beliefs, actions, how he starts the war

• leader of Nazi Party, extremely Nationalist

• believed in rapid aggression in territory, antisemitic, German superiority, making Europe pay for Treaty of V

• grew power during hyper inflation and used hate of democracy

• creates Holocaust and eliminated/threatens opposing political parties

• turns Germany into dictatorship + 1 party

• reestablishes military + navy

• starts WWI with Poland invasion

Reichstag

• what happens to it, symbolism

• Germany Parliament building in Berlin

• is set on fire, Jews were accused and this grows antisemitism

• symbolizes Weimar’s democracy before Nazism

Enabling Act

• Hitler passes act saying that he does not need permission from Parliament to enact or remove laws

• turns Germany into dictatorship

Nazi Party

• formed under Hitler

• suppressed other parties

• gains popularity with the dissatisfaction of Democracy

• extremely nationalistic, racist, and anti communist

Third Reich

• the period of Nazi regime

• the establishment of totalitarianism and Holocaust