Psych 289 exam 2

Schemes

According to Piaget, mental structures that organize information and regulate behavior

Assimilation

Piaget, taking in information that is compatible with what is already known

Accommodation

Piaget, changing existing knowledge based on new knowledge

Equilibration

Piaget, a process by which when disequilibrium occurs, children reorganize their schemas to return to a state of equilibrium

Sensorimotor period

First of Piagets four stages of cognitive development, this lasts from birth to approximately 2 years

Object permanence

The understanding acquired in infancy, that objects exist independently

Egocentric

Having difficulty in seeing the world from another’s point of view, a characteristic typical of children in the pre-operational period

centration

The child focuses on one aspect of a problem or situation but ignores other relevant aspects

appearance as reality

The child assumes that an object really is what it appears to be

What is wrong with Piagets theory

Underestimates cognitive competence in infants and young children and overestimates cognitive competence in adolescents

Piagets theory is vague concerning processes of change

Does not account for variability in children’s performance

core knowledge hypothesis

The theory that infants are born with rudimentary knowledge of the world which is elaborated based on experiences

Mental hardware

Mental and neural structures that are built in and that allow the mind to operate

Mental software

Mental “programs” that are the basis for performing particular tasks

Attention

Processes that determine which information is processed further by an individual

Orienting response

An individual views a strong or unfamiliar stimulus and changes in heart rate and brain-wave activity occur

Habituation

Becoming unresponsive to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly

Classical conditioning

neutral stimulus elicits a response that was originally produced by another stimulus ( infants suck reflexively when sugar water is placed in their mouth)

Operant conditioning

Focuses on the relation between the consequences of behavior and the likelihood that the behavior will recur

autobiographical memory

Refers to peoples memory of significant events and experiences of their own lives

One to one principle

there must be one and only one number name for each object that is counted (1,2,A)

Stable order principle

number names must be counted in the same order (1,2,3,4,5)

Cardinality principle

Last number name differs from the previous ones in a counting sequence by denoting the number of objects

Zone of proximal development

the difference between what children can do with assistance and what they can do alone

Scaffolding

a style in which teachers gauge the amount of assistance they offer to match the learner’s needs

Private speech

A child’s comments that are not intended for others but are designed instead to help regulate the childs behavior

Phonemes

Unique sounds used to create words, making them the basic building blocks of language

Infant-directed speech

Speech that adults use with infants that is slow, has exaggerated changes in pitch and volume and is thought to aid language acquisition's

cooing

Vowel like sounds early

babbling

speech-like sounds that consist of vowel-consonant combinations and are common at about 6 months

fast napping

child’s connections between words and referents that are made so quickly that he or she cannot consider all possible meanings of the word

Underextension

When children define words more narrowly than adults do ERROR

Overextension

when children define words more broadly than adults do ERROR

Referential style

A language-learning style of children whose vocabularies are dominated by names of objects, people, or actions

Expressive style

A language-learning style of children whose vocabularies include social phrases that are used like one word

Telegraphic speech

Speech used by young children that contains only words necessary to convey a message

Grammatical morphemes

words or endings of words that make a sentence grammatical

Over-regularizations

grammatical usage that results from applying rules to words that are exceptions to the rule

Hope

According to Erikson, an openness to new experience tempered by wariness that occurs when trust and mistrust are in balance

Purpose

Achieved with a balance between individual initiative and willingness to cooperate with others

Attachment

Enduring socioemotional relationships between infants and their caregivers

will

Erikson; a young child’s understanding that he or she can act on the world intentionally, which occurs when autonomy shame, and doubt are in balance

Secure attachment

The baby may or not cry when the mother leaves but when she returns the baby wants to be with her, if the baby is crying then it stops

Avoidant attachment

The baby is not upset when the mother leaves and when she returns may ignore her by looking or turning away

Resistant attachment

The baby is upset when the mother leaves remains upset or even angry when she returns and is difficult to console

Disorganized attachment

The baby seems confused when the mother leaves and when she returns as if not really understanding what’s happening

Internal working model

An infants understanding of how responsive and dependable the mother is, which is thought to influence close relationships throughout the child’s life

Basic emotions

Emotions experienced by humankind and that consist of three elements; a subjective feeling, a physiological change and an overt behavior

Social smiles

Smiles that infants produce when they see a human face

Stranger wariness

The first distinct signs of fear that emerge around 6 months of age when infants become wary in the presence of unfamiliar adults

social referencing

Behavior in which infants in unfamiliar or ambiguous environments look at an adult for cues to help them interpret the situations

parallel play

When children play alone but are aware of an interested in whist another child is doing

Simple social play

Play that begins at about 15-18 months and continues into toddlerhood, when talking and smiling at each other also occur

Cooperative play

Play that is organized around a theme, with each child taking on a different role and that begins at about 2 years of age

Enabling actions

Individuals actions and remarks that tend to support others and sustain the interactions

constricting actions

Interactions in which one partner tries to emerge as the victor by threatening or contradicting the other

prosocial behavior

Any behavior that benefits another person

Altruism

behavior driven by feelings of responsibility toward other people such as helping and sharing in which individuals do not benefit directly from their actions

Empathy

Experiencing another persons feelings

modeling

When children imitate behavior they see from people they admire

Disciplinary practices

children behave pro socially when parenting is kind but if it is harsh and scary then they are more than likely not going to listen

Opportunities to behave pro-socially

Children are more likely to act well if they are routinely given the opportunity to help and cooperate with others

Social role

A set of cultural quiz lines as to how a person should behave, particularly with other people

Gender stereotypes

beliefs and images about males and females that may or may not be true

Verbal ability (gender stereotypes)

boys are more likely to be illiterate compared to girls

Mathematics (gender stereotypes)

it used to be that men were better at math but now women are beginning to step up and get higher scores on standardized testing

spatial ability (gender stereotypes)

Men respond more rapidly and readily than women

relational aggression

Try to hurt others by damaging their relationships with peers

Gender identity

a sense of the self as male or female

Gender schema theory

A theory that states that children want to learn more about an activity only after first deciding whether it is masculine or feminine

Mental operations

Actions that can be performed on objects or ideas and that consistently yield a result

Deductive reasoning

Adolescents more sophisticated thinking is also shown in their ability to draw conclusions from facts

Organization

As applied to children’s memory, a strategy in which information to be remembered is structured so that related information is placed together

Elaboration

a memory strategy in which information to be remembered is structured so that related information is placed together

metamemory

A persons informal understanding of memory including the ability to diagnoses memory problems accurately and to monitor the effectiveness of memory strategies

Meta-cognitive knowledge

A persons knowledge and awareness of cognitive processes

Emotional intelligence

The ability to use ones own and others emotions effectively for solving problems and living happily

Analytic ability

Sternbergs theory of successful intelligence, the ability to analyze problems and generate different solutions

Creative ability

sternbergs theory of successful intelligence, the ability to deal adaptively with novel situations and problems

Practical ability

The ability to know which solutions to a problem are likely to work

Mental age

A measure of children’s performance corresponding to the chronological age of those whose performance equals the childs

intelligence quotient

A mathematical representation of how a person scores on an intelligence test in relation to how other people of the same age score

Divergent thinking

Thinking in novel and unusual directions

Intellectual disability

Substantially below-average intelligence and problems adapting to an environment that emerge before the age of 18

Learning disability

Have difficulty mastering an academic subject, have normal intelligence and are not suffering from other conditions that could explain poor performance

Phonological awareness

Ability to hear the distinctive sounds of letters

Knowledge-telling strategy

Writing down information as it is retrieved from memory a common practice for young writers

knowledge-transforming strategy

Deciding what information to include and how best to organize it to convey a point

Socialization

teaching children the values, roles and behaviors of their culture

Authoritarian parenting

A style of parenting in which parents show high levels of control and low levels of warmth toward their children

Authoritative parenting

A style of parenting in which parents use a moderate amount of control and are warm and responsive to their children

Permissive parenting

A style of parenting that offers warmth and caring but little control over children

Uninvolved parenting

a style of parenting that provides neither warmth nor control and that minimizes the amount of time parents spend with children

Direct instruction

Telling a child what to do, when and why

Negative reinforcement trap

Parents often unwittingly reinforce the very behaviors they want to discourage a situation

time-out

A punishment that involves removing children who are misbehaving from a situation to a quiet, unstimulating environment

Joint custody

When both parents retain legal custody of their children following divorce

Blended family

The resulting unit, consisting of a biological parent, a stepparent and children

Friendship

A voluntary relationship between two people involving mutual liking

Co-rumination

conversations about personal problems common among adolescent girls

Clique

A small group of friends who are similar in age, sex, race and attitudes