History, Empire - Winds of change 1947-67

What did Sir Andrew Cohen argue in 1947 about decolonisation in Africa?

As head of Africa dept of colonial office, he argued that although some colonies were becoming economically and politically advanced, independence was not realistic for another 25 years (1972)

However, this was not the case

How did independence movements begin in the Gold Coast?

Cohen had argued that the Gold Coast was the most advanced African colony, there was a firm group of wealthy, educated Africans, this meant GB allowed some representation in government

In 1946, Alan Burns had introduced the Burns constitution, which created the legislitive council, 12 GB nominees and 18 African elected members, but with final say in GB governer with veto power

in 1948/49, economic and political issues were present, and key leaders were imprisoned, Kwame Nkrumah founded the CPP

In jan 1950, Arden clarke created the legislative assembly, further unrest meant Kwame was imprisoned 

How did The Gold Coast gain independence?

The first election was held in February 1951, The CCP won 34/38 seats in the assembly. This meant Kwame was released from prison and was invited to lead the assembly under Arden Clarkes oversight

The next year, Arden Clarke makes Kwame PM, and in 1956, Togoland joins the gold coast through plebicite 

In 1957 after a large success for the CCP in elections, Ghana was granted as an independent state, with Kwame becoming an authoritarian leader later on 

How did Nigeria begin to move towards independence?

Overall, Nigeria was treated similarly to the Gold Coast, but it was a more complex process as there was a greater mix of ethnicities. 

• In 1946 Sir Arthur Richards (gov-Gen) created the Richards constitution which increased African representation in legislative coucil (but GB power was still held)

• Due to differences, GB believed in creating a federation of states to divolve powers to regional assemblys 

• In 1951, the McPherson constitution replaced the Richards constitution. This extended franchise, created a national council of ministers, and each region having an assembly . 

As a result, this increased tensions from the Yoruba and Igbo and grew political parties like;

• Action group, yoruba, left wing

• Northern peoples congress, Fulani, conservative 

• NCNC, eastern group coalition, conservative

How did Nigeria achieve independence?

Political attitudes grew quickly and unrest rose, the constitution was revised again in 1954

• New governing council was introduced made of 3 GB officials, 9 indigenous ministers, from across 3 regions. More powers were devolved to regions

• By 1957, the west and east was fully self governing 

• In 1958, constitutional conference in London attended by leaders from 3 regions. Balewa, Awolowo, Azikiwe. They established plans for independence 

• In December 1959, there were national elections for federal govt

• In 1960, 1st October, Indpendence day occurred

How did decolonisation occur in east african colonies?

Overall, it was less ordered and more violent than in west africa

• During ww2, east african cities grew in population. e.g Nairobi grew by 50% this increased prices and reduced quality of life

After the war, Britain saw economic benefits in East Africa

• Tangyanika groundnut scheme was set up with £49 million spent on infrustructure and machinary. However, the land wasn’t suitable so the scheme was abandoned in 1951 and land was left ruined 

As a result. the failure of the scheme politicised many east African peasants to support nationalist movement

How did tensions in Kenya lead to the Mau Mau uprising?

The gradual mistreatment of the Kikuyu people being forced off their lands meant many migrated to cities facing economic difficulties

• Harry Thuku and Jomo Kenyatta created a nationalist movement called the ‘Kenya Africa Union’ in 1946

• Sir Phillip Mitchell declared in 1948 that self government for Kenya wasn’t possible in the near future and promoted white settler settlement

• In Kenya in 1952, the Mau Mau movement was formed as the kenya land and freedom army, the mau mau oath was created to gain loyalty, they killed a white woman farmer leading to the governer sir evelyn baring declaring a state of emergency

What occurred during the Mau Mau uprising? How did it end?

During the Mau Mau uprising, all political rights for Africans were withdrawn, and leaders were imprisoned e.g Kenyatta. Britain knew the importance of creating a force to fight the Mau Mau

• So, recruited 25,000 loyal kikuyu to fight alongside the British army 10,000 men.

• Disloyal villages were disbanded and any kikuyu were sent to rehabilitation camps where they faced harsh torture. Overall, 12,000 Mau Mau were killed but some estimate 20,000+, 32 white settlers were also killed

Mau Mau rebellion was crushed by 1956, many prisoners however stayed in camps, 11 murdered for instance at the hola camp in 1959. The state of emergency was declared as over in 1960 and the legislative council was reinstated

How did Kenya achieve independence after the Mau Mau uprising?

Kenyatta was released in April 1961, Malcom MacDonald replaced Sir Patrick reinson as governer in 1963, they both worked together to organise self rule for Kenya. It was declared to be an independent republic on the 12th of December 1964

What is the context of ugandan independence movements before 1950, what occurred as a result?

A large cultural region of Buganda led by king Kabaka Mutesa 2nd had been put under British control in 1893, divide and conquer techniques were used to give Bugandans more power with more power in return, there was anguish towards cotton and sugar plantations by British supported Indians

In 1949, there was a large wave of unrest from angry bugandans, Governor sir john hall blamed the riots on communits and rejected any suggestion of reforms

As a result, Sir Andrew Cohen was brought in to to prepare Uganda for independence

How did Uganda move towards independence in 1962?

After being brought in, Cohen introduced economic and legislative reforms, the council was now made to represent the population more accurately 

• In 1953, Oliver lyttelton proposed an east african federation merging Uganda, Kenya, and Tanganyika . The bagandans feared a loss of culture, and mau mau violence so refused to work with cohen and requested bugandan seperation with Uganda. 

• Cohen deported Mutesa to the seychelles, and the bugandan people rose in protest, in 1955 the EAF was abandoned and Mutesa promised to back an independent Uganda so was reinstated as monarch

• Political parties rose like Milton Obotes Ugandan peoples congress which was back by the USSR. 

In 1960, conferences were held in London and it was agreed that independence could occur. the PM was Obote and Presidant being Mutesa (Obote took over power)

How did Apartheid grow in South Africa during it being a dominion, what groups fought against segregation laws?

WW2 led to South Africa becoming economically advanced, inreased black politicisation due to urbanisation, which in turn led to fear in the white Boer/european settlers

Therefore, in 1948, the Nasionale party won a landslide in the election, and apartheid laws came into place e.g segregation in public premises

In contrast, the African national congress was founded to represent interests of young black south africans, they led boycotts and attacked sharpeville in 1960, the international community were also against apartheid relations were damaged

How did South Africa become an independent republic?

In february 1960, Conservative PM Harold MacMillan critiqued apartheid in his ‘winds of change speech in Cape town.

in october that same year a referendum was held and 52% of south Africans voted in favour of becoming an independent republic

What was the idea of the central african federation, what did cohen want to introduce and stop?

Britain was concerned about keeping even economic development across southern/northern Rhodesia and Nysaland as well as preventing white dominance in these countries

Central african federation was introduced by cohen in 1953, but it was far too complicated

How can Northern Rhodesia be used as an example of decolonisation in south Africa?

The North Rhodesian African National Congress was first led by Harry Nkubula, and then kenneth Kaunda, they opposed the CAF and wanted greater African representation

A state of emergency was declared before the legislative elections and Kaunda was imprisoned - caused violent protests

In 1960, Kuanda was released and founded the united national independence party, it recieved 60% of the vote in the 1960 elections

• In 1963, the CAF was dissolved, and kuanda was elected as PM in 1964

• Northern Rhodesia gained independence as Zambia, Kuanda became president

How was Malaya important for Britain post ww2? As a result, How was Malaya restructured and what groups opposed?

After WW2, Britain announced plans to restructure malaya and create a union of protectorates within the territory, Malaya was important for Britain due to earning US $ and expanding the tin industry.

Britain knew it would be important to change the way Malaya was governed as the sultans could no longer be trusted. the population of malaya was 49% Malay, 38% Chinese and smaller minority groups of indians. Opposition was held by these groups when Britain wanted to create a standardised citizenship.

• The united malays national organisation, was founded in 1946, led by Onn Bin Dato’ Jaafar

• the Malayan communist party

Civil disobedience began from the Malay leading to a solution of a new federation of malaya on the first of february 1948

How was the new 1948 Federation of Malay government organised? What reaction came from the Chinese?

• GB High commisioner, supported by 14 members of executive council

• Legislative council, with 64 representatives from different states and ethnicities

• 9 state rulers, held some financial powers

Overall, the system benefitted Malay peoples more, and discrimination towards the chinese grew. This intensified radicalisation from the Chinese communists and protests erupted and the colonial police killed few activists

therefore, on the 17th of june 1948, chinese communists killed three european plantation workers leading to a state of emergency

What occurred during the Malayan emergency 1948-60? How was a push towards independence made during the 50s?

The MCP, led by Chin Peng fought guerilla war through the malayan national liberation army. Britain had developed jungle war techniques (e.g helicopter support). Internment camps and deportation was also used to seperate communists. In 1951 High commissioner Henry Gurney was assassinated

Overall the malay were becoming more hostile, and new leader of UNMO, Tunku Abdur Rhaman built and alliance with the MCA. So Britain led conferences in London creating new fed system

• In 1955, the alliance gains 81% of the vote and Tunku becomes first Malayan chief minister

• In 1956, talks in london happen to lead to independence and in 1957 (with protected GB interest) Malaya became an independent member of the commonwealth

How did Malaya become independent, who joined Malaysian federation after?

The emergency ended in 1957. Over 500 British forces had been killed, 6,500 communists, 2,500 gov forces. The federation remained in the sterling area and military pressence remained. After another landslide victory for the allience, Malaysia in 1963 became an independent federation with singapore, north borneo and sarawak.

• North Borneo was previously made a crown colony in 1946, and was important due to it’s timber and rubber industry. ¼ of the pop was chinese/indian/japanese immigrant workers. Power had been devolved in the 1960s

How did Singapore become self governing?

Before the late 1940s singapore had been set up as an important military base but faced heavy destruction during the war.

After, in 1947/8 it was given it’s own executive and legislative council (although only 6/25 were elected seats in LC). During this time communists were more active but this was overided by more moderate left wing prties like the labour front which ended up dominating the LC after reforms

The leader of the labour front (Lim Yew Hock) removed the communist threat and allowed singapore to be granted self rule in 1957

• In 1959 the peoples action party led by newly elected PM Lee Kuan Yew won a landslide

• In referendum in 1962, 70% of the people voted to join Malaysian federation, and merged in 1963

However singapore left Malaysia in 1965

What was the importance of Aden (yemen) in the middle east? How did it become decolonised?

• A key port city that was on route to the suez canal (meant that until the GoIA 1935 it was part of india)

• In the 1950s there was strong arabic nationalism, the British tried to create a federation of south arabia but this was rejected, it was given autonomous state status in 1963 but protests grew

• this caused the aden emergency in 1963-67). This led to guerrialla attakcs against the british where 90 were killled out of 30,000 deployed

• in 1967, PM Harold Wilson asked troops to leave Aden and it became the republic of south yemen (communist)

How did MacMillan’s wind of change speech demonstrate imperial policy?

Britain was still on a moral mission but mainly to decolonise to leave a positive legacy. They implied Britain worked with nationalist leaders to prepare for independence and that we deserved gratitude in return. there was also a warning to white south africans to stop laws of segregation and not to resist the process.

However, the reality of movemnents were unsatisfied by the pace of the changes and pressed britain to decolonise faster

How did international relations change British imperial policy?

There were two main superpowers of the USA and the USSR which were both fighting for dominance, Britain fell into the sphere of influence of the US as the climate became more tense and the ‘cold war’ begun.

At first, in 1945 trueman was reluctant in supporting the empire, the lend-lease programme continued and there were support for nations vunerable of communism. In march 1947, Britain withdrew military operations in Greece for fiancial reasons therefore sparking the trueman doctrine. Assistance was given through the Marshall plan where Britain recieved $3.3 billion between 1948-52.

Trueman wanted to stop communism in nationalist movements e.g MCP in Malaya. GB had to cooperate with the US so could no longer act unilaterally, however, the us supported Britain to maintain stability during the process of independence

How did Britain play a role in international alliances?

Britain was a founding member of NATO, The UN, and SEATO and had a permanent seat on the UN security council , all of these alliances relied on the US and their security arsenal against the soviet bloc. The UK gained a nuclear deterrent in 1952

Britain was supported by dominions in conflict like the korean war in 1950-53. Although Britain tried to revive it’s strength independantly when it didn’t join the EEC (european economic commitee). But joined later in 1973 after a previous attempt when vetoed by Charles De Gaulle.

How did the commonwealth develop?

It was originally designed as an exclusive club in the 1920s with white dominions, however in 1931, the statute of westminister formalised self rule for dominions and the commonwealth was established. Originally it was designed to have the monarch as the head of state so Ireland had to withdraw in 1948 as it became a republic, when india became a republic rules were changed in 1949 so any nation who had previously been under the British empire could join the commonwealth

Britain wanted the commonwealth to extend their influence without the costs, it developed as soft power- influence based on culture, values, etc

What were GB concerned about in the Middle east?

The UK and the USA were concerned against the USSR ambitions in the middle east after ww2, the area was significantly influenced by Britain e.g Aden, Jordon, Kuwait. 10,000 troops were stationed at the Suez canal after 1936 in the Anglo-Egyptian treaty

The Arab league was previously formed in 1945 of independent arab nations, egypt, Iraq, Saudi arabia which challenged Britains pressense in sudan and the canal

How did tensions rise between Britain and Egypt after ww2, how did Britain try to reduce this?

There were increasing clashed between British and Egyptian forces around the canal, in 1951 King Farouk renounced the 1936 Anglo-Egyptian treaty and proclaimed himself the king of sudan

• In 1952 Colonel Abdel Nasser seized power in Egypt through a military coup, the next year in 53 foreign sec Anthony Eden negotiated a staged withdrawal from Sudan

• Also in 1954 Britain agreed a phased withdrawal from the canal in two years but wanted the right for reoccupation if conflict arose

Britain wanted to cooperate with Egypt as there was a feeling of keeping domestic priorities and having free access through the canal, they wanted to respect independence of Suez canal company which would return to British ownership by 1968 as a result, in the 1955 Bahgdad pact, GB-Arab alliance against the USSR

How did Nasser respond to the Bahgdad pact? How did Nasser lose international support and create further tensions?

Nasser refused to join the pact and tried to influence Jordan to opt out as well, he believed that the pact undermined arabic dominance in the middle east. Nasser joined alliance with syria and bought weapons from Czechoslovakia - a communist country. 

• In 1955 Anthony Eden became PM

• In june 1956 Nasser officially became president and established a one party dictatorship, he wanted to build the Aswan High Dam to improve irrigation and flood control.  

However, The USA and UK withdrew funding for the dam as Nasser refused to break ties with the USSR.

• Nasser in 1956 nationalised the suez canal company which was of direct breach of the 1954 agreements

How did Britain respond to Nasser’s agrivation?

Britain feared the loss of the 44% stake of the canal, and the undermining of influence in the region. Eden initially attempted to create a diplomatic solution publically but also prepared for a military attack joined with France. By October that year Eden decided an invasion was best to secure the canal and remove Nasser

How did the suez crisis begin and end?

The protocol of sevres were secret meetings hosted between GB, France, and Israel. Israel was to attack egypt, as well as refusing ceasefire, and Britain and France were to invade as they wanted to ‘reduce tensions’ and ‘defend the canal’. Forces damaged air bases and landed large numbers at Port Said, heavy fighting killed c2000 egyptians. In response, Egypt sunk ships in the canal blocking it

Britain faced consequences as Eden hadn’t notified Eisenhower about his plans to invade

• The US and UN publically refused to support britain and threatened sanctions

• The bank of england lost $45 million in 3 days as US investments were pulled

• Oil supply damaged

• USA pressured the IMF (international monetary fund) to not give aid to Britain

• Pakistan and and other commonwealth members threatend to leave

• Soviet leader Khruschev threatened to attack Britain

By the end of 1956 Britain withdrew all troops from Egypt and in 1957 Eden resigns ‘due to illness’

What approach did Britain take financially after the war?

The UK took a twin-track approach weighing the cost and benefit of empire and colonies. They decolonised India it was too much to handle but kept colonies like Malaya which was an important source for foreign currency esp $.

Britain needed to earn $ to help pay for it’s imports as reserves had been used up during the war this was existential

• This meant that rationing continued after the war whilst industrial production was prioritised with building of cars, ships, steel industry development

What two colonial development acts were put in place during ww2? what was created after the war?

• The colonial development and welfare act 1940, Britain wrote off foreign debts and provided grants of £5 million a year, and £500,000 for research

• The colonial development and welfare act 1945, This increased the aid spending of £120 million within 10 years (12mil a year)

After WW2, the colonial development cooperation was created, it was renamed commonwealth development corp in 1963, It co-ordinated projects like self sustaining agriculture, industry, and trade. With an expectation of returns

What are some examples of projects across empire trying to boost economies?

• Tangyanika ground nut scheme which cost £49 million, aimed to create cooking oil, and penuts, USA

• Northern Rhodesia, cement works, Kariba dam 

• Bechuanaland, development of molopo ranch, one of the largest cattle ranches in S Africa

How did different imperial regions grow the value of exports?

• Asia had the highest growth in the value of exports with £191.4million in 1946, £819.6million. This fell slightly due to increased competition from nations like Japan to £815.1 million

• West Africa also increased drastically with countries like Nigeria, £43.1 million in 1946 to £228.5 million in 1956

• The Caribbean also increased from £20 million in 1946 to £127.5 in 1956

How did Britain ‘s economy recover in the 1950s into the 60s?

• British manufacturing industries employed 40% of the workforce and was responsible for ¼ of global exports. Britain was also a leading producer of ships, and leading european producer of coal, tin, cars, and textiles. Most products bought in Britain were made in Britain

• between 1955-69 prices increased by 63% and weekly earnings rose by 130%, wages for teens grew by 50% 

• car ownership grew by 25% between 51 and 61

• over 200,000 houses were built every year 

What were the reasons for Britain falling behind during the 1960s?

• Lack of willingness to change (traditional markets)

• Poor relations with trade unions

• Lack of investment in infrustructure because of welfare state

This meant that the value of the pound decreased as britains trade deficit increased

How was there a shift in trade between 1945-67?

in the 1940s/50s empire remained important for Britains economic trading position, GBs lack of foreign currency reservesmeant it was affordable to source imports from nations in the sterling area. e,g in 1956, 58% of GB overseas investment was in imperial companies or governments

However, by the 1960s the UK looked towards western europe where trade overtook the commonwealth for instance

• in 1948, 44.9% of imports were from the commonwealth compared to 20.5% with europe

• This stayed the same until 1965 where 29.8% of imports were from the commonwealth compared to 30.6% with Europe

How did the economy improve in west Europe after WW2? How did Britain struggle in comparison?

Western Europes economys bounced back after ww2 due to;

• Marshall aid, expansion of US trade to prop europe up against communism

• Economic potential in countries like France, Italy, and Germany had previously been restrained by dictatorships and focus on defence

• Takeover of liberal democracies led to private enterprise, meaning Europe embraced globalised trade and moved to work with european neighbours

• Scientific advances with combined industries in steel, chemicals that Britain fell short of 

In 1957 Europe formed the EEC (european economic community) the conservatives refused to join the EEC at first as they relied on their traditional base of commonwealth

How did Britain try and compete with the EEC at first? How did they try and join?

Britain saw possibilities within Europe so set up a rival trading bloc EFTA (European free trade association) in 1960, The EEC flourished whilst EFTA failed. Therefore Britain wanted to join the EEC in 1963 and 67

• This failed as it was blocked by Charles De Guelle, he didn’t want Britain to have access to both the EEC and the Commonwealth and was convinced that British membership would allow the USA to take control of the bloc

Alongside these challenges, Britain was made to devalue the £ destroying the sterling area

By 1973, Britain was joined the EEC with Charles De Guelle gone

How did devaluation affect Britains economy?

• Devalueation reduces the costs of exports so foreign competitors are more likely to buy British, domestic consumers are more likey to buy British as costs of imports increases, this reduced trade deficit

• The £ was devalued in 1949 due to rebuilding after the war, from $4 to $2.80, this helped recovery and increased exports

• Labour in 1964 won and were reluctant to devalue the £ again, this was also made difficult by the 6 day war were the trade was disrupted and the canal was closed for 8 years after the fact

• therefore by November 1964, government announced a 14% devaluation from the $2.80 to $2.40

What is an example of post-colonial ties? How did it show Britains dominance?

between 1944-69 the commonwealth PM’s conferences were held every two years in london showing Britains influence over the insitution (this was later changed in 1971 when different member states would hold these conferences

The commonwealth is a clear indication of Britains colonial ties as a global diplomatic network

How did the commonwealth prove successful by using the royal family?

Queen Elizabeth the 2nd remained popular as head of the commonwealth as she represented symbolic continuity and unification

The royal family would make visits to the commonwealth nations to create ties of cultural affection, commonwealth citizens were given access to the GB honours programme and listened to the Christmas broadcast

What were post-colonial economic relations like?

• Influence was held within the sterling area until 1967, it was often beneficial for indigenous leaders to be linked to Britian

• Overall Britain reverted back to an informal empire with strong trading links and dominance in certain regions

• Power went back into hands of businesses like BP who provided oppurtunities for economic development

What were post colonial cultural relations like?

• The English language remained dominant in many countries within the commonwealth, it became common language for global trade, international relations, etc

• British influences like street names, food, music, and sport

• The British council was set up in 1934 to promote cultural cooperation with Britain, it still exists with a budget of over £1 billion annually

• The commowealth games which is the largest sporting event outside of the olympics is held every 4 years

What were post-colonial social relations like?

• There was a newfound level of equality expected between indigienous populations and Britain

• The 1948 British Nationality act gave free entry to nationals from around the commonwealth and full UK citizenship

• This therefore led to migration increasing in the 50s and 60s, many of these immigrants however faced discrimination, poor living conditions, and low pay

What caused mass emigration from the UK to dominions and how many people left?

There were many reasons for British people to emigrate abroad to dominions like Australia, for instance;

• rationing and bomb damage left from ww2

• demand for labour in dominions with better pay

This meant that between 1946-57 1 million left to dominions, this made sense because;

• many British nationals (25%) had links to empire

• national service

• colonial adminsistrators still serving in empire

What is the context behind Windrush?

• In February 1947, a conference was held in London with commonwealth reps involved, they allowed each member to legislate for it’s own citizenship status

• After concern about a lack of labour, Attlee put in place the British nationality act which began in 1949

• The passenger ship ‘windrush’ sailed to Jamica to pick up serviceman going home, additionally they placed an ad allowing immigrants to also come, the ship arrived in london with 1,027 people with 802 from the caribbean (mostly ex-servicemen)

How did the government respond to immigration?

11 labour MPs wrote to Attlee addressing their concerns about social cohesion being disrupted in the country

Colonial sec Arthur creech jones responded with reasssurance “Do not worry”

Attlee replied “these circumstances are not likely to be repeated”

However, the government continued to encourage immigration to build a workforce for the NHS, TFL, etc

What statisitics demonstrate immigration to Britain?

• between 1947-70 around ½ a million migrated to the UK

• 50% settled in London with the majority of Asian immigrants settling in places like Birmingham

• between 1962-65 migration was around 50,000 a year

Kwame Nkrumah

• Biographical info

• Political background

• Signifigance

• Former President of Ghana (the gold coast)

• Attended catholic missionary schools and went on to study in the US at the University of Pennsylvannia

• Nkrumaism - A form of African nationalism and socialism

• Formed the convention peoples party (CCP), Used to media to gain attention moderately, Boycotts, strikes

• Led Ghana to indpendence in 1957 and won majority of seats in 51,56, and 59

• He was a Major advocate for OAU (organisation african unity) in 1963, fostering unity with trade unions

Dawdra Jawara

• Biographical information

• political info

• signifigance

• First President of Gambia

• Previously served in the British military and went to the university of Glasgow

• Gained respect as an activist and civil servent and founded the PPP (peoples progressive party) in 1959

• He achieved self govt in 1962 and independence in 1965

• As a result, Gambia became one of the most politically stable African nations

Jomo Kenyatta

• Biographical info

• Political background

• Signifigance

• First president of Kenya, previously studied at missionary schools and travelled to London in the 20s and 30s

• Built kanu (kenyan national union)

• Arrested in 1952 as a result of his ‘involvement in the Mau Mau uprising’, released from prison in 1961

• He went on and led indepence movements and became president in 1964 and empathised on development, education, agriculture

Milton Obote

• Biographical info

• Political background

• Signifigance

• Ugandan son of a tribal chief, went to protestant missionary schools and Maharere University

• He used military focres to maintain his power through idi amin, he had socialist political ideas and joined the UNC and elected to legislative council, appointed in 1962 and took over

• Successfilly built political alliances and a strong national party structure, expanded UPC

Kenneth Kuanda

• Biographical info

• Political background

• Signifigance

• Northern Rhodesia/Zambia his father was a missionary from the CoS

• Zambian ‘humanism’ a blend of soicialist and christian values

• Supported the concept of a one party state and eliminated opposition, United national independence party. His party reached 300,000 members in june 1960 indicating strong support

• Fought against white minority rule

Ian Smith

• Biographical info

• Political background

• Signifigance

• Born to Scottish Presybatarian parents who held influence in Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe)

• Went to the University of Cape Town

• Key Figure in the RF (rhodesian front) party and advocated for white only control

• Became PM in S Rhodesia in 1964, declared UDI (unilateral independence) in 1965 making it isolated

• Rhodesian bush war

Onn Bin Dato’ Jaafar

• Biographical info

• political background

• Signifigance

• His father was the chief minister of Jahour (malaya), he went to private school in England and university educated in Malaya

• Founded the united malays organisation, faced opposition from malayan communists

• Organised rallies against British rule but placed walls up saying no non malays could join

Chin Peng

• Biographical info

• Political Background

• Signifigance

• Went to Chinese language school and was secretary general of the MCP - had a communist ideology which he wanted to translate within Malaya

• Led the Malayan Emergency

What was the reaction towards immigration?

• At first, when there was no support given to immigrants a positive sense of community support was brought in, however, intergration and assimilation slowed.

• However during the 50s economic anxieties grew racial prejudice. There were claims of British culture being more fragile, loss of job for British people e.g Oswald Mosley’s fascist anti immigration union movement

• Race riots broke out in Summer/Autumn 1958, violence erupted in St Ann’s in Nottingham with over 1000 people attacking west Indian communities. Then, violence broke out in Notting Hill the next weekend, 108 were charged, 72 of those being white

• This indicated wider concerns and discrimination occurred in the workplace, and divisions grew

How were immigrants mistreated in the 1960s?

• One survey in 1962 found 90% of people wanted to curb migration

• In 1962, the commonwealth immigrant act was put in place restricting immigration making people from the commonwealth apply for a permit. Irish however were exempt from the permit, therefore immigration mainly slowed for BAME groups, but many did panic and got there families to the UK before the legislation came into place. This act had 70% support from the electorate

• In 1964, Con MP candidate for smethick, peter griffith ran an anti-immigrant campaign, it was the consituency with the highest proportion of immigrants 8.5%. He won the seat

• Harold Wilson won the election as a labour PM, he didn’t agree with Griffith but knew he needed to appeal to uk nationals. so banned children over 16 joining their families

• He Also passed the race relations act of 1965, this forbode discrimination in public but ignored it in housing and employment

How was there change and continuity in British culture in relation to Empire?

• There was a change in rise of TV, Pop music, as well as further liberation for woman

• Empire was comforting for some but many found it outdated

What are some examples of continuity for cultural attitudes to empire?

• Queen Elizabeth the 2nd’s coronation in 1953, Empire/commonwealth day/commonwealth games. All examples of national celebration reminding society of imperial traditions

• Imperialism stayed stronger with the upper classes e.g last night of the proms, featuring patriotic songs. Honours systems OBE,MBE

• Scouts, boys brigade and affection for old stories like Kiplings work

What drove cultural change in Britain?

• Democratisation

• Social mobility

• liberalism

• economic power in middle and working classes

• americanisation

• multiculturalism

What factors influenced liberalisation and decline in deference?

Liberalism increased

• experience of war and genocide

• increased role of women

• establishment of UNDHR

• soviet fear of lack of freedom

Social deference decreased

• Rise in unions, classes controlled the economy

• tabloid journalising providing a satirical image of empire and class systems

• fear of conflict, government untrustworthy due to Suez crisis

• Second wave feminism

Why was there a rise in youth subcultures? What are some examples of the groups?

After the war, parents wanted many children due to their differing attitudes, this created a baby boom

These parents wanted much better for their children like a better education, greater freedoms, so there were was an emergance of teenage subcultures, they ended up shaping much of popular culture

• Teddy boys, influenced by American fashions and gained a violent reputation. like the 1958 race riots

• Hipsters, formed of jazz and folk clubs, multi class and multi ethnic

• Mods and rockers

• hippies

• skinheads, initially a multi-ethnic subculture, combining mod fashions and afro-american and caribbean subculture/music

How were their signs of multiulturalism in the 1960s?

• Notting Hill carnival celebrating caribbean culture after the 1958 riots, this was televised by the BBC

• New food trends, Chinese and Indian takeaways

How did television and pop music influence popular culture? How was this a seperation from empire?

• Tv combined some American ideas with British humour as well as occasional imperial themes, BBC TV launched in 1946. Events like the coronation in 1953 caused major booms in tv ownership. The BBC put out many documentaries, but also released comedy programmes and new wave dramas. Some of these comedies were racist e.g ‘the black and white minstrel show 1958-78

• New popular music genres, Rock and roll, the blues, and Jazz. Bands lie the beattles combining genres

This was completely divorced from Empire and the commonwealth, instead of looking at culture there, there was a shift to American pop culture

How did literature and cinema become influenced by popular culture?

• Imperial themes were still being shown with old stories like Kiplings work reminding people of a simpler time. However new cultural movements rejected these ideas. The term angry young men was used to describe writers like Kingsly Amis who were disillusioned about British society.

• Cinema remained popular, in the 1950s most movies were themed around the successes and bravery of WW2 soldiers, also spy films like James bond were very popular in 1962. Some directors did keep imperial themes like Lawrence of Arabia in 1962, however these were just exceptions

How did Counter cultures in the 60s become mainstream?

In 1966 the times magazine declared that London was the ‘swinging city’ as it was a hub of creativity. there was a cultural revolution that had become mainstream.

The counter culture deflected on tradition, going against authority, sexual liberation, anti war/nuclear weapons