family diversity

What is meant by family diversity?

Family diversity refers to the existence of a wide range of family structures rather than one dominant family type. Postmodernists argue Britain has moved from the dominance of the nuclear family towards a plurality of family forms.

What are the main changes in British family patterns?

Key changes include the decline of the traditional nuclear family, increased divorce rates, fewer first marriages, later marriage, increased cohabitation, legal recognition of same-sex relationships, declining fertility, more births outside marriage, growth of lone-parent families, one-person households, stepfamilies and childless couples.

How have divorce rates changed in Britain?

Divorce rates increased dramatically after the 1960s, peaking at around 165,000 divorces in 1993. By 2012 there were around 118,000 divorces, around six times higher than in 1961, and around 40% of marriages are expected to end in divorce.

Which couples are most likely to divorce?

Couples who marry young, cohabit before marriage, have children before marriage or where one or both partners have been married previously are more likely to divorce.

How have legal changes contributed to rising divorce rates?

Legal reforms made divorce easier, cheaper and more accessible. Key changes include equal divorce rights in 1923, legal aid in 1949, the Divorce Reform Act (1971), the Civil Partnership Act (2004) and legalisation of same-sex marriage in 2014.

Evaluate legal explanations for rising divorce rates.

Legal changes explain why people can divorce more easily but not why they choose to. Changing attitudes and women's increasing independence are also important explanations.

What is stigma?

Stigma refers to negative social attitudes or shame attached to something, such as divorce.

How have changing attitudes contributed to rising divorce rates?

Divorce has become increasingly socially acceptable since the 1960s, reducing stigma and making people more willing to leave unhappy marriages.

What did Mitchell and Goody (1997) argue about divorce?

Mitchell and Goody argue the stigma surrounding divorce has declined rapidly, making divorce more socially acceptable.

Evaluate changing attitudes as an explanation for divorce.

Changing attitudes explain why people are more willing to divorce but do not explain why divorce has increased particularly among women.

What is secularisation?

Secularisation is the decline in the influence of religion over society.

How does secularisation explain rising divorce rates?

As religion becomes less influential, churches have less authority over marriage and divorce, making divorce more socially acceptable.

Evaluate secularisation as an explanation for divorce.

Secularisation explains weaker religious opposition to divorce, but many religious people still divorce, so it cannot fully explain divorce patterns.

How does Fletcher (1966) explain rising divorce rates?

Fletcher argues expectations of marriage have risen. People increasingly expect love, emotional satisfaction, romance and personal fulfilment, making divorce more likely if these expectations are not met.

What is the romantic love ideology?

The belief that there is a perfect partner and marriage should provide emotional fulfilment. If love disappears, divorce is viewed as acceptable.

What did Allan and Crow (2001) argue about marriage?

They argue love, personal commitment and intrinsic satisfaction have become the cornerstones of marriage.

Evaluate Fletcher's explanation of divorce.

Functionalists argue high remarriage rates show people still value marriage, but feminists argue Fletcher ignores patriarchy and women's unequal experiences within marriage.

How has women's financial independence contributed to rising divorce rates?

Women have greater education, employment opportunities, equal pay legislation and welfare support, making them less financially dependent on husbands and more able to leave unhappy marriages.

How did Allan and Crow explain women's financial independence?

They argue marriage is now less embedded within the economic system because women have their own income and greater financial independence.

Evaluate women's financial independence as an explanation for divorce.

It explains why women initiate most divorces but cannot explain why working women do not always have higher divorce rates.

How do feminists explain rising divorce rates?

Feminists argue marriage remains unequal because women experience paid employment alongside domestic and emotional labour, making divorce a way of escaping patriarchy.

What is Hochschild's (1997) triple shift?

Hochschild argues women perform paid work, domestic labour and emotional labour, leading many women to become dissatisfied with unequal marriages.

How does Jessie Bernard (1976) explain rising divorce?

Bernard argues divorce reflects women's growing awareness of patriarchal oppression and represents women's liberation.

Evaluate feminist explanations of divorce.

Feminist explanations are supported by the fact that most divorce petitions are made by women, but Cooke and Gash (2010) found no evidence that working women are more likely to divorce.

How do Beck (1992) and Giddens (1992) explain rising divorce?

They argue individualisation has weakened traditional obligations, allowing people to prioritise personal happiness and leave unsatisfying relationships.

What is Giddens' concept of the pure relationship?

A relationship based on mutual satisfaction and personal fulfilment rather than duty, tradition or economic necessity. When fulfilment ends, the relationship is likely to end.

Evaluate the individualisation thesis.

It explains why divorce has become normalised but ignores structural inequalities such as class and gender.

How does the New Right view divorce?

The New Right argues divorce weakens marriage, increases lone-parent families, creates welfare dependency and removes male role models.

What is Murray's (1984) dependency culture?

Murray argues generous welfare benefits encourage lone parenthood and irresponsible family behaviour by creating dependency on the state.

How do feminists interpret divorce?

Feminists argue divorce is positive because it allows women to escape patriarchal relationships and reflects increasing gender equality.

How do postmodernists interpret divorce?

Postmodernists argue divorce reflects greater individual choice and increasing family diversity.

How does David Morgan (1996) explain divorce?

Morgan argues divorce has different meanings depending on individuals' personal experiences and circumstances.

How does Carol Smart (2011) explain divorce?

Smart argues divorce should be viewed as one transition among many in the life course rather than simply family breakdown.

How have marriage patterns changed in Britain?

Fewer people marry, people marry later, marriage rates are the lowest since the 1920s, remarriage has increased and religious weddings have declined.

Why are fewer people getting married?

Marriage is no longer viewed as essential due to changing attitudes, secularisation, acceptance of alternatives, women's independence and fear of divorce.

How does secularisation contribute to declining marriage rates?

Young people are less religious, reducing the influence of religious beliefs encouraging marriage.

How has declining stigma affected marriage?

Cohabitation, remaining single and lone parenthood are now socially accepted alternatives to marriage.

How has women's changing position reduced marriage rates?

Women have better careers and financial independence, making marriage less economically necessary.

How does fear of divorce reduce marriage rates?

Some people avoid marriage because they believe it is likely to end in divorce.

Why has remarriage increased?

Rising divorce creates more divorced individuals who later remarry.

What is serial monogamy?

The pattern of marriage, divorce and remarriage across an individual's life.

What is cohabitation?

Cohabitation refers to unmarried couples living together in a sexual relationship.

How has cohabitation changed in Britain?

Cohabitation has increased dramatically, with around 2.9 million heterosexual cohabiting couples and around 69,000 same-sex cohabiting couples.

Why has cohabitation increased?

Reasons include declining stigma, women's financial independence and secularisation.

How does Robert Chester explain cohabitation?

Chester argues cohabitation is usually a stage before marriage rather than an alternative to it.

What did Ernestina Coast (2006) find about cohabitation?

Coast found around 75% of cohabiting couples expected to marry.

What is the trial marriage view of cohabitation?

Cohabitation allows couples to test compatibility before deciding whether to marry.

How does André Bejin (1985) explain cohabitation?

Bejin argues some couples choose cohabitation because it creates a more equal relationship than traditional marriage.

What did Shelton and John (1993) find about cohabitation?

Women living in cohabiting relationships performed less housework than married women.

What legal changes affected same-sex relationships?

Key changes include decriminalisation of male homosexuality (1967), the Civil Partnership Act (2004) and legalisation of same-sex marriage (2014).

What are chosen families according to Jeffrey Weeks (1999)?

Chosen families are family networks based on friendship rather than biology or marriage, particularly common among LGBTQ+ people.

What did Kath Weston (1992) argue about same-sex relationships?

Weston described same-sex relationships as quasi-marriages because they often provide stable, committed relationships similar to heterosexual marriage.

How did Allan and Crow explain same-sex relationships?

They argued same-sex relationships were historically more flexible and less stable because they lacked legal recognition.

What did Anna Einasdottir (2011) argue about same-sex marriage?

Some LGBT people fear marriage reduces the flexibility and independence traditionally associated with same-sex relationships.

How have one-person households changed?

One-person households have increased to around 7.7 million by 2013, almost three times the number in 1961, with around 40% occupied by people aged over 65.

Why are one-person households increasing?

Reasons include divorce, later marriage and individuals choosing independence.

What is creative singlehood?

Creative singlehood refers to people deliberately choosing to remain single and independent.

What is Living Apart Together (LAT)?

LAT relationships involve couples who are in committed relationships but choose not to live together.

What did Duncan and Phillips (2013) find about LAT relationships?

They found around one in ten adults lived in LAT relationships due to financial reasons, independence or previous relationship experiences.

How have childbearing patterns changed?

There are more births outside marriage, women have children later, families are smaller and more women remain childless.

Why have childbearing patterns changed?

Women increasingly prioritise education, careers and personal fulfilment before having children.

How have lone-parent families changed?

Lone-parent families make up around 22% of families with children, with around 90% headed by women.

Why have lone-parent families increased?

Reasons include rising divorce and separation, declining stigma and more women choosing to have children outside marriage.

Why are most lone-parent families headed by women?

Women are often viewed as natural carers, usually receive child custody after separation and men are less likely to leave employment for childcare.

How does Jean Renvoize (1985) explain female-headed lone-parent families?

Renvoize argues professional women can increasingly support children without relying on fathers.

How does Ellis Cashmore (1985) explain some lone-parent families?

Cashmore argues some working-class women choose welfare support after escaping abusive relationships.

How does Murray (1984) explain lone-parent families?

Murray argues welfare benefits create a dependency culture that encourages lone parenthood.

How do feminists criticise Murray's explanation?

Feminists argue benefits are not generous and lone parents often experience poverty because of childcare costs, low wages, the gender pay gap and unpaid child maintenance.

What is a stepfamily?

A stepfamily is created when divorced or separated people form new relationships involving children from previous relationships.

How common are stepfamilies?

Over 10% of families with dependent children are stepfamilies.

What did Ferri and Smith (1998) find about stepfamilies?

They found stepfamilies are often similar to first families with positive stepparent involvement but experience greater risks of poverty.

What did Allan and Crow (2001) find about stepfamilies?

Stepparents often face divided loyalties and conflict involving non-resident parents.

Why do Ribbens McCarthy et al. (2003) argue we should speak of 'stepfamilies'?

They argue stepfamilies are highly diverse and cannot be treated as one single family type.

How are Black family patterns traditionally explained?

Traditional explanations link higher lone-parent rates to slavery, male unemployment and poverty.

How does Heidi Safia Mirza (1997) challenge traditional explanations of Black families?

Mirza argues Black lone mothers often value independence and autonomy rather than reflecting family disorganisation.

How does Tracey Reynolds (2010) challenge statistics on Black lone-parent families?

Reynolds argues many apparently lone mothers receive support from non-resident partners, making statistics misleading.

What are the characteristics of many Asian families?

Asian families often have larger households and stronger extended family networks.

How does Roger Ballard (1982) explain Asian extended families?

Ballard argues extended families provided important support for Asian migrants settling in Britain.

How did Parsons explain the decline of the extended family?

Parsons argued industrial society replaced extended families with geographically mobile nuclear families.

How does Nickie Charles (2008) evaluate Parsons?

Charles found three-generation households are now rare except among some Bangladeshi families.

What is Willmott's (1988) dispersed extended family?

Relatives live separately but maintain close emotional contact, support and regular interaction.

What are multiple nuclear families according to Mary Chamberlain (1999)?

Caribbean families often maintain several closely connected nuclear families that support one another.

What is a beanpole family?

Julia Brannen (2003) describes a beanpole family as being vertically extended across generations but horizontally thin because of fewer siblings and cousins.

What causes beanpole families?

Increased life expectancy and declining fertility create more generations but fewer relatives within each generation.

What did Finch and Mason (1993) find about family obligations?

They found 90% of people had given or received financial help from relatives and around half had cared for sick relatives, showing kin obligations remain strong.

How does the New Right interpret changing family patterns?

The New Right argues the decline of the traditional nuclear family is harmful because it weakens marriage and increases welfare dependency.

How do Functionalists interpret changing family patterns?

Functionalists argue higher expectations explain family change but marriage remains an important institution.

How do Feminists interpret changing family patterns?

Feminists argue family changes reflect women escaping patriarchal relationships and gaining greater equality.

How do Postmodernists interpret changing family patterns?

Postmodernists argue greater diversity reflects increased individual choice and freedom.

How do individualisation theorists explain changing family patterns?

Beck and Giddens argue people are increasingly free to create relationships based on personal fulfilment rather than tradition.

How does the Personal Life Perspective explain changing family patterns?

The Personal Life Perspective argues families are adapting and becoming more diverse rather than declining.