beliefs in society

theories of religion 1

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substantive definition of religion

• focus on the content or substance of religious belief (such as belief in god)

• Weber defines religion as belief in a superior or supernatural power that is above nature and can’t be explained scientifically

functional definition of religion

• defines religion in terms of the social or psychological functions it performs for individuals or society

• durkheim defines religion in terms of the contribution it makes to social integration

constructionist definition of religion

• argue that it is not possible to produce a single universal definition of religion

durkeim view on religion

• sacred and profane

• totemism

• collective conscience

• cognitive functions of religion

the sacred and profane

• key feature of religion for durkeim is the distinction between the sacred and profane

• the sacred are things set apart and forbidden

• the profane are things that have no special significance (ordinary)

• Durkheim believes that sacred things are symbols representing something of great power and he believes that this is society

• and when people worship sacred things they’re worshiping society itself

totemism

• durkeim used studies of the arunta (Australian tribe with a clan system)

• Arunta clans consist of people who come together to perform rituals involving worship of a sacred totem

• the totemic rituals reinforce the groups solidarity and sense of belonging

• durkiem believes that when they worship their totem they’re actually worshiping society

the collective conscience

• durkiem believed that the sacred symbols represent society’s collective conscience

• the collective conscience is the shared norms, values, beliefs and knowledge that makes social life between individuals possible- without these society would disintegrate

• durkeim believes that regular shared religious rituals reinforce the collective consciousness

• religion makes us feel apart of something greater than ourselves

Criticisms of durkeim

• worsley notes that there is no sharp division between the sacred and the propane

• durkeims theory is hard to apply to large scale societies where there are multiple religious communities

psychological functions of religion

• Malinowski agrees with durkeim that religion promotes solidarity but by performing psychological functions for individuals, helping them cope with emotional stress

• for example in times of life crises like birth or puberty, religion helps to minimise disruption

parsons and religion

• parsons sees religion as helping individuals to cope with unforeseen events and uncontrollable outcomes

• argues that religion also creates and legitimates society’s central values and it is the primary source of meaning

evaluation of functionalism

• it emphasises the social nature of religion and the positive functions it performs but neglects the negative aspects like oppression of women

• ignores religion as source of division and cinflict

Marxist theories of religion

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religion as ideology

• Marx believes that ideology is a belief system that distorts people’s perception of reality in ways that serve the interests of the ruling class

• marx believed that religion operates as an ideological weapon used by the ruling class to justify the suffering of the poor as soemthing inevitable

• religion misleads the poor to believe that they will be favoured in the afterlife because of their suffering

religion and alienation

• Marx sees religion as the product of alienation

• working class are alienated compared to upper class so the exploited turn to religion as a form of comfort (creates false class consciousness)

• religion also acts as an opium to dull the pain of the exploited but it masks the pain and doesn’t treat it

evaluation of Marxist view on religion

• Marx ignores the positive aspects of religion and focuses on the negative

• middle class are regular church goers

feminist theories of religion

• see it as patriarchal

• based on male domination

evidence of patriarchy

• religious organisations are mainly dominated by men. E.g. in some religions women aren’t allowed to be priests. (ARMSTRONG)

• religious laws may give women fewer rights than men. E.g. access to divorce, how many people they marry, dress codes.

criticisms of feminism

• Armstrong argues that women haven’t always been segregated from religion. In early religions they were often placed at the centre of religion. E.g. fertility cults

religion and social change 2

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religion as a conservative force

• prevents social change

• preserved traditional values and beliefs

religions beliefs

• most religions have traditional conservative beliefs about moral issues

• most religions uphold “family values” and often favour a traditional patriarchal domestic division of labour

religions functions

• religion and consensus- functionalists see religion as a conservative force as it functions to maintain social stability

• religion and capitalism- Marx sees religion as a conservative ideology that prevents social change

• religion and patriarchy- feminists see religion as a conservative force as it acts as an ideology that legitimates patriarchal power

how has religion seen to create capitalism?

by disguising exploitation and inequality, it creates false class consciousness in the working class

Weber and religion as a force for change

• argued that the religious beliefs of Calvinism helped to bring about major social change

• notes that many past societies had capitalism in the sense of greed for wealth. However modern capitalism is unique because it is based on pursuit of profit for its own sake rather than for consumption

Calvinist beliefs

• predestination- god has predetermined which sounds would be saved and which wouldn’t

• divine transcendence- god was far above and beyond this world

evaluation of Weber and religion as a force for change

• Marx disagrees as he saw economic or material factors as the driving for social change whereas Weber argues that material factors alone are not enough to bring about capitalism

• Weber has been criticised as capitalism didn’t develop in every country where there were calvinists

religion and social protest

• Steve Bruce compares two protests that have tried to change society

the American civil rights moment

• Bruce uses this as an example of religiously motivated social change

• started with rosa parks

• ended with segregation outlawed

• Bruce argues that the law was changed due to the black clergys christian values of equality

• Bruce sees religion as bringing about change

the new Christian right

• aim was to take America “back to god” and make abortion, homosexuality and divorce illegal

• believes strongly in the traditional family and traditional gender roles

• Bruce found that it was unsuccessful due to three reasons: campaigners found it very difficult to corporate with other religions, lacks widespread support

• Bruce describes this movement as a failed movement for change

what is liberation theology?

• a movement that emerged within the Catholic Church with a strong commitment to the poor and opposition to military dictatorship

Marxism, religion and change

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Bloch: the principle of hope

• sees religion as having a dual character

• believes religion is an expression of “the principle of hope”- the perfect world

• it can get people to look for improvement in the world

• religious beliefs may therefore create a vision of a better world

gramsci: religion and hegemony

• used the term hegemony to refer to the way that the ruling class use ideas such as religion to maintain control

• by hegemony he means ideological domination of society

• however hegemony is never guaranteed- it is always possible for the working class to develop an alternative vision of how society should be organised

secularisation 3

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secularisation in Britain

• 1850- 40% or more of adult population attended church, which is much higher then today

• this change has led to: a decline in amount of people going to church, fewer church weddings, greater diversity

• Wilson argued that western societies had been undergoing a long term process of secularisation (e.g. church attendance had fallen from 40% to 10-15% in the 1960)

church attendance today in Britain

• trends Wilson identified had continued

• 2015- 5% of adults attended, meaning attendance had halved since 1960

• 1970- 60% of British weddings in church, 20%- only 30%

religious institutions today

• have declined

• e.g. churches used to provide education but now is provided by schools

explanations of secularisation

• decline in religious thinking and beliefs

• decline in religious practice

• decline of power and influence of religious institutions

decline in religious thinking and belief

• the church has less impact today on people’s lives

• numbers of anglicans almost halved between 1983 and 2014

decline in religious practice

• 5% of the population attend church on Sundays- 2015

• many church buildings are dilapidated

decline of power and influence of religious institutions

• the state has taken over many functions that church used to perform

• the church has little influence over social policies

weber and rationalism

• believed that decline in religious beliefs is because people have become reliant on technology rather than religion

• moved away from super natural and more towards science or tech (rationalism)

social and cultural diversity

• move from pre industrial to industrial society brings about the decline of community, which contributes to the decline of religion

• wilson argues that in pre industrial communities, shared values were expressed through collective religious rituals

• however when religion lost its basis in stable local communities, it lost its vitality

structural differentiation

• theory by parsons

• argues that the family has lost some of its functions due to the creation of specialised institutions being created

• two major impacts on religion: disengagement- people become less interested in religion, privatisation- religion becomes a private matter

religion, renewal and choice 4

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davie- from obligation to consumption

• religion has become a choice

• in the past religion would “oblige” people to go to church

• this is no longer the case- religion is no longer inherited or imposed but personal choice

what is vicarious religion?

• the idea that religion is practiced by an active majority on behalf of the great minority, who then experience religion at second hand

spiritual shopping

• hervieu leger continues the idea of personal choice and decline in obligation

• traditional institutional religion has declined but religion itself has not disappeared

• people now have the choice as consumers of religion- spiritual shoppers

• religion is now individualised- meaning we can develop our own beliefs that fit with our lives and interests

postmodern religion

• lyon agrees with davie that believing without belonging is increasingly popular

• he argued that traditional religion is giving way to a variety of new religious forms

• Hellen distinguishes between two types of internet activity: religion online- where religious organisations use the internet to address members and online religion- a form of communication that allows individuals to create relationships and a sense of community

new age

• a range of spiritual or religious practices and beliefs which rapidly grew in western society during the early 1970s

• new age beliefs and practices have been called “self spirituality” because their key idea is individualism: idea that every individual is free to decide what is true for them

contrast between religion and spirituality

religion

• life as duty

• self sacrifice

• conforming with external authority

  spirituality

• life as discovery

• personal development

• connecting with your inner self

weaknesses of new age

• weak commitment- bruce found that although many people meditated, are into astrology etc, serious commitment to the new age was very rare

• structural weakness- new age spiritually causes secularisation itself because it’s subjective and individualistic

existential security theory

• Norris and inglehart argue that the reason for variations in religiosity between societies is not different degrees of religious choice but different degrees of existential security

• the idea that religion provides safety

• societies where people feel secure have less demand for religion (rich) but poor have less security so have high demand for religion

what is the religious market theory?

• stark and bainbridge

• see the secularisation theory as Eurocentric

• religious market theory is based on: people are naturally religious and religion meets human needs- therefore demand for religion is consistent, and it is human nature to seek rewards and avoid costs

religion in a global context 5

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religious fundamentalism

• the demand for a strict adherence to orthodox theological doctrines, usually understood as a reaction to modernist theology

• fundamentalists appeal to tradition and often look back to a supposed golden age in the past

7 characteristics of fundamentalism

• authoritative sacred text- every word in the bible is true

• “us and them” mentality- fundamentalists separate themselves from the rest of the world and refuse to compromise

• aggressive reaction- aim to draw attention to the threat of their beliefs

• use of modern technology

• patriarchy- favour it

• prophecy

• conspiracy theories- attracted to them

what is cosmopolitanism?

• giddens

• a way of thinking that embraces modernity and is in keeping with todays globalising world

• tolerant of the views of others and open to new ideas

• ones lifestyle is seen as a personal choice rather than something prescribed by an external religious

how does India contradict the idea of secularisation?

• globalisation has created a huge, scientifically educated middle class in India

• the secularisation theory predicts that they will be first to abandon religion

• but majority believe in supernatural

• only 5% said that their religiosity has declined in the last 5 years and 30% said they became more religious

religion and development (Pentecostalism)

• form of Christianity

• emphasises the work of the Holy Spirit and the direct experience of the presence of god by the believe

• believer that faith must be powerfully experiment

organisations, movements and members 6

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types of religious organisations

• churches- large, millions of members, aims to include the whole of society

• sects- small, exclusive groups, hostile to wider society, draw their members from the poor and oppressed

• denominations- membership less exclusive then sect but don’t appeal to the whole of society, accept society’s values, minor restrictions to members but not as demanding as sects

• cults- highly individualistic, small grouping around shared interests, tolerant of other organisations, don’t demand strong commitment

reasons for the growth of religious denominations

• marginality- Weber says that sects are popular in groups who are marginal to society and sects offer a solution to their oppression by offering them a religious explanation of their disadvantage

• relative deprivation- refers to the subjective sense of being deprived which means that it is possible for privileged people to feel deprived compared to others. M/c people may feel spiritually deprived so they turn to sects as a sense of community

• social change- wilson argues that periods of rapid change disrupt norms and values so this creates uncertainty meaning they may turn to sects as a solution

why are some sects short lived?

• the second generation who are born into the sect lack commitment

• death of a charismatic leader

gender differences in religiosity

• women more likely to attend church regularly then men

• more women then men say they have a religion

• more women say religion is important to them then men

• more women describe themselves as “spiritual”

reasons for gender differences

• risk, socialisation and roles

• paid work

• women and the new age

risk, socialisation and roles

• miller and Hoffman

• by not being religious, people are risking that religion might be right and they will go to hell

• men are more risk taking then men so they are less likely to be religious

• women are more religious as they are socialised to be more passive, obedient and caring and these qualities are valued by most religions so women are more attracted to religion

• women’s gender roles mean they are more likely to work part time so have my time to participate in religious activities

paid work

• Bruce argues that women’s religiosity is a result of their lower levels of involvement in paid work

• he links this to secularisation processes such as rationalism

• this has gradually driven religion out of the male denominated sphere of work and into the private sphere of family- which involved women

women and the new age

• as women are associated with a healing role they more be more attracted then men to new age movements and ideas

• this is because such movements involve cults of healing which gives women a higher status and sense of self worth

Ethnic differences in religiosity

• in london, black people were twice as likely to attend church then white

• Muslims, hindus and black Christian’s are more likely to see their religion as important then white Christian’s and attend church every week

reasons for ethnic differences

• cultural defence

• cultural transition

cultural defence

• bird says that religion among minorities can be a basis of solidarity (a means of preserving one’s culture and language) and a way of coping with oppression in society

• black christians may find white churches as not actively welcoming which leads them to joining black led churches

cultural transition

• religion can also be a means of easing the transition into a new culture by providing support and a sense of community for minority groups in their new environment

age differences in religiosity

• the older the person is the more likely they are to attend religious services

• however one expecting is that under 15s are generally more likely to go to church than those in most of the age groups above them

• this is because they have less choice and are made to by parents

reasons for age differences

• the ageing effect- people turn to religion when they get older. As we approach death, we “naturally” become more spiritual

• the period effect- people born during a particular period may be more or less likely to be religious because of the particular events they lived through

ideology and science 7

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the impact of science

• improving medical care

• improving technology

• offers a “bible” to the whole of society

• can enjoy entertainment

• makes life easier

• increase efficiency

open belief systems

• popper believed science to be an open belief system where every scientist is open to scrutiny, criticism and testing by others

CUDOS norms

• Merton- science can only thrive as a major social institution if it receives support from other institutions and norms

  1. communism- scientific knowledge is not private property

  2. universalism- the truth or falsity of scientific knowledge is judged by universal, objective criteria

  3. disinterestedness- means being committed to discovering knowledge for its own sake

  4. organised scepticism- no knowledge, claim is regarded as “sacred”, every idea is open to questioning and criticism

closed belief system

• religion has special, perfect knowledge of the absolute truth and is not open to criticism

witch craft among the azande

• the azande believe that natural events have natural causes

• e.g. if you step on a snake it will bite you

• do not believe that this is down to coincidence, it is witchcraft

self sustaining beliefs

• polanyi argues that all belief systems have three devices to sustain themselves in the face of apparently contradictory evidence:

  1. circulatory- each idea in the system is explained in terms of another idea within the system

  2. subsidiary system

  3. denial of legitimacy to rivals- belief systems reject alternative worldviews by refusing to grant any LEGO to their basic assumptions

science as a closed system

• khun believes mature science is based on a set of shared assumptions called a paradigm

• the paradigm tells scientist what reality is like, what problems to study, what methods and equipment to use

• those who do so successfully are rewarded with bigger research grants

• a successful career depends on working within the paradigm

• therefore any scientist who challenged the fundamental assumptions of the paradigm are likely to be ridiculed

the sociology of scientific knowledge

• rather than scientific knowledge being the absolute truth, it is created by social groups using the resources available to them

• social construct

(Marxist) ruling class ideology includes ideas and beliefs such as

• equality will never work out as it goes against “human nature”

• victim blaming ideas about poverty- “the poor are dumb”

• racist ideas about inferiority of ethnic minorities, which can divide black and white workers

the ideology of nationalism

nationalism claims:

• nations are real, distinctive communities each with its own unique characteristics and a long share history

• every nation should be self governing

• Anderson- a nation is only an “imagined community”, although we identify with it we will never know most of its other members

functionalism: nationalism as civil religion

• nationalism is like a secular civil religion

• it integrates individuals into larger social and political units by making them feel part of something greater than themselves

gellner: nationalism and modernity

• sees nationalism as false class consciousness

• says it is a very modern phenomenon

• believed pre industrial societies were not held together by nationalism but by gave to face relationships in small scale communities

Karl mannheim: ideology and utopia

1. Mannheims two types of belief system:

   • ideological thought- justifies keeping things as they are. Reflects the position and interests of privileged groups

   • utopian thought- justifies social change, it reflects the position and interests of the underprivileged and offers a vision of how society could be organised differently

     2. groups of intellectuals who attach themselves to particular classes create worldviews

     3. these world views only give a partial view of reality as they only represent the interests of particular groups and not society as a whole

feminism and ideology

• marks- ideas from science have been used to justify excluding women from education

• 19th century doctors, scientists and educationalists expressing the view that educating females would lead to the creation of a new race of puny unfeminine women