Media Effects - Exam 1 (Weeks 1-4)

experience, authority, science

The Three Ways of Knowing are ________.

individual differences, trial and error, difficult to detect influences/biases

Limitations of experience

authority heuristic

Reliance on reputation or expertise to form opinion on the credibility of a claim/media

Endorsement heuristic

Agreeing with a claim because others do too

persuasive intent

intentionally causing us to perceive credibility. A possible motive for sharing information

may speak outside their experience; personal interests

limitations of authority

general trends, not individuals; assumes objective truth; doesn’t provide plans of action

limitations of science

prediction, explanation, control

goals of science

Theory

a set of statement that identifies key variables, predicts how they are related, and suggests an explanation

falsifiable

Regarding a hypothesis. Means that certain observations, if found, will disprove the hypothesis, and this must be predictable ahead of time.

general, public, cumulative, skeptical

characteristics of scientific research

confirmation bias

People tend to interpret information in specific ways, or gravitate towards sources, that confirm their preexisting beliefs

Content Analysis

A form of media effects research that simply observes and describes (“codes”) media

objective, systematic, quantitative

characteristics of content analysis

non-random sampling

specified selection; based on convenience or other factors

random sampling

every member of a population has an equal chance of being chosen for a sample. Ensures generalization

unit of analysis

What will be observed/quantified/coded?

variables

What’s another term for the coding categories (plural)?

coding agreement

Unanimity between two or more coders on how content should be coded. Calculated as % of times the coders agreed.

coding reliability

overall consistency of a measurement/code.

Manifest content

appears evidentally in media or requires minimum interpretation. Easy to quantify. Examples include dialogue, appearances, actions

Latent content

content that isn’t obvious must be interpreted by coders. Therefore harder to quantify and code without error. Examples include sarcasm, symbolism, moral ambiguity, subtextual and contextual elements

does not infer effects

main limitation of content analysis

survey

a poll of questions administered to a population. Allows us to gather data about behaviors, attitudes and beliefs. ALSO ALLOWS US TO DEFINE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIABLES (but not causation!)

write research question and hypothesis, develop survey questions, administer survey, analyze results

survey steps

cross-sectional survey

a survey that only uses one sample at one particular point in time.

longitudinal survey

a type of survey that observes trends over time. Includes trend studies and panel studies.

Trend study

In this longitudinal survey, trends are observed over time, using different samples.

panel study

in this longitudinal study, individual changes and trends are observed over time, using the same sample.

generalizable

an adjective for results from a random sample, meaning that the results can describe an entire population. Non-random samples do NOT produce results like this.

social desirability bias

survey participants may answer questions dishonestly to conform to societal expectations or appear less shameful

validity

is the measurement tool accurate, and does it measure what it intends to measure?

correlation

a relationship or association between two variables

correlation coefficient

a way to represent the strength of an association between 2 variables

logical association between variables, constant time order, no third variables

three criteria for causality

experiments

a research method that uses a controlled environment to isolate and identify a causal relationship

random assignment

everyone in an experiment has an equal chance of being placed in a TREATMENT GROUP(s) or a CONTROL GROUP

Hawthorne effect

The effect of knowing you are being observed, which can alter your behavior in an experimental setting

parasocial relationship

one-sided feelings for celebrities, fictional characters and media personalities

unethical questions, lacking ecological validity

limitations of experiments

ecological validity

the extent to which findings can be generalized and relevant in real-life scenarios, not in contained environments.

Replication

repeating a study’s methods with a new population or in a new context to see if the results are the same.

social science

First coined in 1824: the study of social interaction in an scientific, systematic, and unbiased manner

real world is independent of beliefs; reliable and predictable effects of social world

assumptions of social science

hypodermic needle and magic bullet

The antiquated “powerful effects model,” which states that media will affect everyone the same way and in equal measure, is commonly referred to as these TWO

payne fund studies

The original studies from 1929-1932 that pioneered media effects research. Attempted to research whether themes in movies affected children’s sleep, attitudes, delinquency, etc. EX: Measured palm sweat during romance films

Hays Code

The original model of movie censorship, inspired by the Payne Fund Studies

People’s Choice Study

A 1940 media effects study that asked whether media consumption is associated with voting behavior. It found a reinforcement effect

Reinforcement effect

when media validates your beliefs, making you more insistent on them

conversion effect

when media causes you to change your beliefs or influences your future actions

selective exposure

people are more likely to select media that aligns with their confirmation bias. Distinct from filter bubbles because in this case, the user has an active choice

filter bubble

an environment (especially online) that curates media to conform to the user’s existing beliefs. Often this is created by algorithms, meaning the user doesn’t have a choice.

Two-step flow

the transfer of ideas from media to opinion leaders, then from opinion leaders to the masses

opinion leaders

Consists of 3 criteria: 1) active news media user. 2) Held in high esteem. 3) Usually considered an expert on something

Decatur study

the study that introduced the concept of two-step flow

Ceiling effect

WWII films did not make soldiers more motivated to serve, because their motivation was already at maximum levels. There was no range of responses. This is an example of the _________.

limited effects perspective

a perspective born out of the results of the People’s Choice and WWII studies. Media has little to no effect on audiences.

partial effects perspective

A nuanced perspective on media effects. Media has influence but it varies depending on context and individual differences.

state

a short-term, temporary experience

trait

an enduring individual difference or pattern of behavior. Stable regardless of timeframe or context.

Need for Cognition

An individual’s interest in actively seeking out information and critical processing.

openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

The Big 5 personality traits are: (list as OCEAN acronym)

sensation seekers

A type of individual difference. Certain consumers seek out extreme, stimulating activities, including the media they select.

demographics

Individual difference variables (characteristics) used to categorize people. Ex: race, gender, education, income, age

uses and gratifications perspective

a 1970s perspective on media effects. Instead of media having universal effects on passive audiences, each individual audience member is motivated to select specific media to obtain certain effects

companionship, parasocial relationships, social interaction, arousal, relaxation

motivations for media use

build community, mood management, self-expression, self-enhancement

motivations for content creation

displacement hypothesis

time is being wasted or “displaced” by media consumption. This theory is known as the ________.

focuses on the individual; assumes we know why we use media; self-report; social desirability bias

limitations of the uses and gratifications perspective

descriptive vs. predictive

the difference between a perspective and a theory