Unit 0 Vocabulary - An Introduction to Psychological Science Practices: Research Methods & Data Interpretation

Psychology

The science of behavior & mental processes

Psychodynamic perspective

Perspective (theory) of psychology that views personality & behavior with a focus on the unconscious mind & the importance of childhood experience

Behavioral perspective

Perspective that focuses on the effects of learning on our personality development

Humanistic perspective

Perspective that views personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth

Cognitive perspective

Perspective that focuses on how our thought processes & decision making influences our personality

Biological perspective

The scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, & hormonal) & psychological processes

Evolutionary perspective

The study of the evolution of behavior & the mind, using principles of natural selection

Social-cultural perspective

Perspective that studies how situations & cultures affect our behavior & thinking

Critical thinking

Thinking that does not automatically accept arguments & conclusions; rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, & assesses conclusions

Hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)

Peer reviewers

Scientific experts who evaluate a research article's theory, originality, & accuracy

Theory

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations & predicts behaviors or events

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Falsifiable

The possibility that an idea, hypothesis, or theory can be disproven by observation or experiment

Operational definition

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study; for example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures (also known as operationalization)

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced

Case study

A non-experimental technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Naturalistic observation

A non-experimental technique of observing & recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate & control the situation

Variable

Anything that can vary & is feasible & ethical to measure

Correlation

A non-experimental measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, & thus of how well either factor predicts the other

Correlation coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1.00 to +1.00)

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables; the slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables; the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation)

Illusory correlation

Perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship

Regression toward the mean

The tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average

Meta-analysis

A non-experimental statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion

Survey

A tool for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

Social desirability bias

Bias from people's responding in ways they presume a researcher expects or wishes

Self-report bias

Bias when people report their behavior inaccurately

Sampling bias

A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

Random sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Population

All those in a group being studied, from which random samples can be drawn (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country's whole population)

Experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable); by random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors

Experimental group

In an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment - that is, to one version of the independent variable

Control group

In an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group & serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

Random assignment

Assigning participants to experimental & control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups

Single-blind procedure

An experimental procedure in which the research participants are ignorant (blind) about whether they have received the treatment or a placebo

Double-blind procedure

An experimental procedure in which both the research participants & the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo; commonly used in drug-evaluation studies

Placebo effect

Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent

Independent variable

In an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

Dependent variable

In an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

Confounding variable

In an experiment, a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study's result

Experimenter bias

Bias caused when researchers may unintentionally influence results to confirm their own beliefs

Validity

The extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to

Quantitative research

A research method that relies on quantifiable, numerical data

Qualitative research

A research method that relies on in-depth, narrative data that are not translated into numbers

Informed consent

Giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

Debriefing

The post experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose & any deceptions, it its participants

Descriptive statistics

Numerical data used to measure & describe characteristics of groups; include measures of central tendency & measures of variation

Histogram

A bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

Mode

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

Mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores & then dividing by the number of scores

Median

The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it & half are below it

Skewed distribution

A representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

Range

The difference between the highest & lowest scores in a distribution

Standard deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score; data sets with a larger range have a larger standard deviation

Normal curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68% fall within one standard deviation of it) & fewer & fewer scores lie near the extremes (also called a normal distribution)

Inferential statistics

Numerical data that allow one to generalize - to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

Statistical significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that a result (such as a difference between samples) occurred by chance, assuming there is no difference between the populations being studied

Effect size

The strength of the relationship between two variables; the larger the effect size, the more one variable can be explained by the other; represented by Cohen's d or Pearson's r