Cognitive Processes in Memory and Problem Solving

concreteness effect

a result showing that memory for concrete concepts is superior to memory for abstract concepts

picture superiority effect

a result showing that memory for pictures is superior to memory for words of the same concepts

bizarreness effect

result showing that memory for unusual images is superior to memory for typical images

method of loci

a mnemonic technique that relies on imagery and known locations to encode and retrieve to-be-remembered information

pegword mnemonic

a memory aid where ordinal words (e.g., one, two) are rhymed with pegwords (e.g., bun, shoe) to create images of pegwords and to-be-remembered items interacting

Scenographic imagery

the image of an environment based on landmarks encountered in that environment along a navigated route

Abstract imagery

an image of an environment based on an overview of the environment

defining a problem

the process of determining which features of a problem-solving situation are relevant and which are irrelevant

problem space

the mental representation of a problem and the ways it can be solved

Example

the problem solver recognizes that a car can be used to drive his son to school (so driving the car is an operator here). But in this case, the car isn't running.

Subgoal

A subgoal is to get the car to run.

Algorithm

A prescribed problem-solving strategy that always leads to the correct solution in problems with a single correct solution.

Heuristic

A problem-solving strategy that does not always lead to the correct solution.

Problem-solving

A cognitive activity that involves moving from an initial state to a goal state, in the context of rules or constraints.

Satisficing

Finding a satisfactory or 'good enough' solution, even though that solution may not be optimal.

Think-aloud protocol

Verbalizing what one is thinking about while performing a particular task.

Trial-and-error strategy

A strategy that involves generating possible solutions, trying those solutions, and then repeating the process.

Means-ends strategy

A problem-solving strategy that involves repeated comparisons between the current state and the goal state.

Hill-climbing strategy

A problem-solving strategy that involves continuous steps toward the goal state.

Working-backward strategy

A problem-solving strategy that involves beginning with the goal state and working back to the initial state.

Mental set

A tendency to use the same set of solutions to solve similar problems, even when a different solution may be easier/better/more accurate.

Functional fixedness

Focusing on how things are typically used and ignoring other potential uses in solving a problem.

Isomorphic problems

Two or more problems with the same solution but different surface structure.

Analogical transfer

Using the same solution for two problems with the same underlying structure.

Insight

Suddenly realizing the solution to a problem.

Deductive reasoning

Making and evaluating arguments from general information to specific information.

Inductive reasoning

Making and evaluating arguments from specific information to general information.

Argument

A set of premises plus a conclusion.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to prefer or give privilege to new evidence that is consistent with our existing beliefs or theories.

Scientific reasoning

An intentional problem-solving process that uses both inductive and deductive reasoning to generate and test claims.

Scientific method

A method of gaining knowledge in a field that relies on observations of phenomena and which allows for tests of hypotheses about those phenomena.

Empirical evidence

Information about a behaviour through systematic observation.

Theory

An explanation that incorporates laws, hypotheses, and facts allowing for the testing of predictions.

Problem space

The mental representation of a problem and the ways it can be solved.

Problem representation

Determining the goal of the problem and the relevant knowledge needed to address it; includes the initial state, goal state, constraints, and allowable operations.

Decision making

A type of problem in which one must engage in cognitive processes to select a course of action or belief from a set of options.

loss aversion bias

a bias to avoid loss more than seeking gain

framing bias

a bias in reasoning where the context in which a problem is presented influences our judgment

anchoring effect

an effect in decision making where a starting point affects decisions more than other information

availability heuristic

a heuristic used in decision making where examples easily brought to mind are relied on to make judgments and solve problems

representativeness heuristic

a heuristic used in decision making where stereotypes are relied on to make judgments and solve problems

elimination-by-aspects strategy

a decision-making strategy in which a choice is reached through a series of eliminations based on a ranked set of criteria

expected utility theory

a decision-making strategy where decisions are made based on estimating the relative values of the choices to maximize gain

prospect theory

a description of decision-making that takes into consideration differences in the value of losses and gains to model decision behavior

dual-process framework

the idea that cognitive tasks can be performed using two separate and distinct processes

temporal discounting

how willing one is to wait for a larger reward compared to a smaller immediate reward

Groupthink

a group decision-making effect where consensus within the group overshadows and suppresses individual contributions that do not align with the majority choice

Neuroeconomics

an area of decision-making study that bridges psychology and economics by focusing on the neural mechanisms underlying decisions

decoy effect

decision-making situation where an inferior additional option affects the choice between other options

Case studies

a research study that focuses on intensive analyses of a single individual or more broadly on a single observation unit

Experimental studies

a research study that examines causal relationships between variables

Correlational studies

a research study that examines relationships between measured variables

cross-sectional research design

a developmental research design in which participants of different ages are observed during the same period of time

quasi-independent variable

variable within an experimental design, preexisting or inseparable from the participants, that cannot be reasonably manipulated

longitudinal design

a developmental research design in which the same group of participants is observed over time as they age

Microgenetic method

a specific type of longitudinal research design in which the same participant is observed many times over a short period of time

cohort-sequential design

a developmental research design in which samples of observations are made across age groups at both a single period of time and over a longer span of time

Habituation

a decrease in response to a repeatedly presented stimulus

violation-of-expectation technique

A research method, often used with infants, that uses their behaviour attending to unexpected events longer than expected events

Phonemes

the part of the working-memory system that holds auditory codes of information

Morphemes

the smallest units of a language that contain meaning

child-directed speech

language directed at infants and children that usually consists of relatively short and syntactically simple with exaggerated prosodic structure

Syntax

the rules structure of a language

Encoding

the process of inputting information into memory

Storage

the process of storing information in memory

Retrieval

the process of outputting information from memory

Sensory

the very short-term memory storage of unprocessed sensory information

Short term

the short-term storage of memory with minimal processing that is forgotten quickly without elaborative processing

Long term

long-term (i.e., lifetime) storage of memory after some elaborative processing has occurred

Episodic

memory for a specific episode or experience in one's life

Explicit memory

intentional retrieval of a memory

Implicit memory

procedural memory that alters performance based on previous experiences

Childhood (or infantile) amnesia

a phenomenon where many episodic memories of early childhood are inaccessible in later life

central executive

the part of the working-memory system that controls the flow of information within the system and into long-term memory

visuospatial sketchpad

the part of the working-memory system that holds visual and spatial codes of information

phonological loop

the part of the working-memory system that holds auditory codes of information

Metacognition

awareness of one's own cognitive abilities and processes

prospective memory

memory for future intentions

Schema

the general knowledge structure for an event or situation

Counterfactual

thinking about things that did not happen but could have

isomorphic problems

two or more problems with the same solution but different surface structure

deductive reasoning

making and evaluating arguments from general information to specific information

inductive reasoning

making and evaluating arguments from specific information to general information